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VIRTUE ETHICS
THE ETHICS OF ETHOS
Ethical Theories
Teleological
Virtue
Deontological
Ends
Ethos
Rules
Consequences
Habits
Absolutes
Calculation
Living
Simplicity
Action
Disposition
Action
WHY SHOULD I BE MORAL?
BECAUSE OF MY CHARACTER!
ARETOLOGY
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Arete - Excellence, Strength, Virtue
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Aretaic Ethics - Strength-Centred Ethics
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Emphasizes Virtues (Strengths) and Vices
(Weaknesses) of Character
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Not “What Should I Do?” (both Deontology and
Teleology) but
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“What Kind of Person Should I Be?”
ORIGINS OF VIRTUE ETHICS:
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The theory of virtue ethics originates in Ancient
Greece, though some connections can be drawn as
far back as Ancient China.
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In Greek, virtue (arête) means ‘excellence’.
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Socrates once claimed: “it’s the greatest good for a
man to discuss virtue all day … on the grounds that
the unexamined life is not worth living” (The Apology).
SOCRATES/PLATO’S THEORY OF
VIRTUE
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Virtue is supposed to be a kind of knowledge;
It is identified with wisdom (sophia);
Wisdom is both necessary and sufficient for
virtue;
Knowledge about virtue is somehow analogous
to mathematical knowledge;
Both kinds of knowledge are the result of a selfreflective process called ‘recollection’.
A PROBLEM OF KNOWLEDGE:
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Since virtue concerns action, it is possible to act
well without knowing how to act well;
As long as someone has the right belief about which
actions are good, he or she will act virtuously;
But belief without knowledge is unstable and
fleeting;
This is why it is necessary to have, not just true
belief, but knowledge, which is justified true belief.
ARISTOTLE
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Some people believe that nature
makes people good, others believe
that it is habit, and still others say
that it is teaching. Experience
shows that logical arguments and
teaching are not effective in most
cases. The soul of the students
must have been conditioned by
good habits just as land must be
cultivated to nurture seed. For a
person whose life is guided by
emotion will not listen to a rational
argument, nor will he understand it.
ARISTOTLE’S ETHICS
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384-322 B.C.
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The Nicomachean Ethics
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Two Kinds of Persons
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Continent:
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Do what is right, but not necessarily because they want to
Temperate:
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Do what is right because they want to; the more holistic
person
PERSON CENTRED
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The “ethics of dilemma” approach to morality
forgets an essential part of ethics – THE
PERSON’S CHARACTER and how personal
moral growth is encouraged
We are not concerned to
know what goodness is but
how to become good people,
since otherwise our enquiry
would be useless.
Aristotle
The ethical condition is not
the condition of having a
certain right theory; rather
the ethical condition is having
a certain character.
Alasdair Macintyre
VIRTUE AND CHARACTER
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To be virtuous is to have a virtuous character.
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Character is an engrained habit or disposition to act
in certain ways.
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Virtuous action must come from a virtuous character
(as opposed to some external force).
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The virtuous person wants to act virtuously and does
so for that reason.
VIRTUE AND CHARACTER
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To be virtuous is to have a virtuous character.
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Character is an engrained habit or disposition to act
in certain ways.
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Virtuous action must come from a virtuous character
(as opposed to some external force).
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The virtuous person wants to act virtuously and does
so for that reason.
THE GOAL OF HUMAN
EXISTENCE
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Eudaimonia
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Flourishing, Happiness
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A Lifelong Pursuit, accomplished
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Rationally, through theoretical wisdom and contemplation
Functionally, through practical wisdom and politics
EUDAIMONIA
Eudaimonia, or 'happiness', is the supreme goal of human life.
Aristotle believed that everything has a purpose - the good for
a knife is to cut, and a good knife is one that cuts well. In the
same way, Eudaimonia is the 'good' for a person.
Aristotle draws a distinction between superior and subordinate
aims. Why do I study ethics? Maybe to get a qualification. I
get the qualification to get a good job, and I want a good job
because... These are subordinate aims. At some point you
stop and say 'because that would make me happy' - and this
becomes the superior aim. 'Eudaimonia' is the end goal or
purpose behind everything we do as people, and is desired for
its own sake.
THE GOAL OF HUMAN EXISTENCE
& EUDAIMONIA
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Aimed at the “perfect happiness” which is the
perfect activity
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An excellence in any activity in accordance with
the nature of that activity
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Thus, “Human happiness is the activity of the soul
in accordance with perfect virtue (excellence)”.
(I.8; Pojman, 394).
INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL
VIRTUES
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Aristotle distinguish between intellectual and moral
virtues:
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Intellectual virtues can be taught formally. They involve
knowledge and understanding of causes and ends (the
why and how).
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Examples: theoretical wisdom, scientific knowledge, insight or
understanding, technical skill or art, and practical wisdom.
Moral virtues can only be acquired through practice and
experience. They involve acquiring habits of character and
have to do with the appropriate management of emotions.
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Examples: temperance or moderation, justice, courage or fortitude,
generosity, friendliness, wittiness, truthfulness, etc.
HABIT: HOW TO ACQUIRE
VIRTUE
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With respect to the moral virtues, Aristotle thinks
we “learn by doing”.
Virtue requires discipline and practice.
Repeated virtuous actions help to engrain the
character traits or dispositions that make a person
virtuous.
Making virtuous decisions requires good moral
judgment (reason), so there is an essential,
rational component as well.
AN ANALOGY:
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One of the easiest ways to think of how to acquire moral
character is by comparing it to skills like the ability to play a
sport or a musical instrument.
A person who practices hard and trains her body acquires
the skills to be able to do that skill well.
The skilled athlete or musician is also the one who is better
able to practice, reinforcing her skill.
The skilled athlete or musician actually physically changes
his or her body through repetitious actions.
In the same way, the virtuous person finds it easier to act
virtuously; she actually changes her physical and emotional
characteristics.
MORAL VIRTUES
The good life involves developing a good character. Moral virtues are
cultivated by habit. To become a generous person, I must get into the
habit of being generous. Put another way, it is not enough to be told that I
should be patient. To become patient, I need to practice patience.
It is very difficult to translate some of Aristotle's moral virtues. 'Liberality'
and 'Magnificence' (popular in many translations) both seem to mean
generosity. The following list is an attempted translation:
courage, temperance, big-heartedness, generosity, high-mindedness, right
ambition, patience, truthfulness, wittiness, friendliness, modesty, righteous
indignation
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES
Intellectual virtues are qualities of mind developed
through instruction. They are:
practical skill, knowledge, common sense, intuition,
wisdom; resourcefulness, understanding, judgement,
cleverness
CARDINAL VIRTUES
The cardinal virtues are temperance, courage, wisdom and
justice. These virtues work together, and it would not be
enough to have one of these alone. Temperance and courage
are moral virtues - we get into the habit of acting bravely. We
learn self-control by practicing restraint. Developing right
judgement requires training - we are educated in the skill of
weighing up a situation. In out courts, judges don't just learn on
the job, they require years of training before they earn the title
'Justice'. Wisdom sits above all of the other virtues, the
culmination of years of learning.
THE GOLDEN MEAN
Cowardice
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Deficiency
Recklessness
Excess
Mean
One must find the right balance between Cowardice and
Recklessness… Courage
NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS, 3.7
What is terrible is not the same for all men; but we say there
are things terrible even beyond human strength. These, then,
are terrible to every one- at least to every sensible man; but the
terrible things that are not beyond human strength differ in
magnitude and degree, and so too do the things that inspire
confidence. Now the brave man is as dauntless as man may
be. Therefore, while he will fear even the things that are not
beyond human strength, he will face them as he ought and as
the rule directs, for honour's sake; for this is the end of virtue.
But it is possible to fear these more, or less, and again to fear
things that are not terrible as if they were.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
EN, 2
Of the faults that are committed one consists in fearing
what one should not, another in fearing as we should not,
another in fearing when we should not, and so on; and so
too with respect to the things that inspire confidence. The
man, then, who faces and who fears the right things and
from the right motive, in the right way and from the right
time, and who feels confidence under the corresponding
conditions, is brave; for the brave man feels and acts
according to the merits of the case and in whatever way
the rule directs.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
EN, 3
Now the end of every activity is conformity to the corresponding state of
character. This is true, therefore, of the brave man as well as of others. But
courage is noble. Therefore the end also is noble; for each thing is defined
by its end. Therefore it is for a noble end that the brave man endures and
acts as courage directs. Of those who go to excess he who exceeds in
fearlessness has no name (we have said previously that many states of
character have no names), but he would be a sort of madman or insensible
person if he feared nothing, neither earthquakes nor the waves, as they say
the Celts do not; while the man who exceeds in confidence about what
really is terrible is rash. The rash man, however, is also thought to be
boastful and only a pretender to courage; at all events, as the brave man is
with regard to what is terrible, so the rash man wishes to appear; and so he
imitates him in situations where he can.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
EN, 4
Hence also most of them are a mixture of rashness and
cowardice; for, while in these situations they display
confidence, they do not hold their ground against what is
really terrible. The man who exceeds in fear is a coward;
for he fears both what he ought not and as he ought not,
and all the similar characterizations attach to him. He is
lacking also in confidence; but he is more conspicuous for
his excess of fear in painful situations. The coward, then,
is a despairing sort of person; for he fears everything.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
EN, 5
The brave man, on the other hand, has the opposite
disposition; for confidence is the mark of a hopeful
disposition. The coward, the rash man, and the brave
man, then, are concerned with the same objects but are
differently disposed towards them; for the first two exceed
and fall short, while the third holds the middle, which is the
right, position; and rash men are precipitate, and wish for
dangers beforehand but draw back when they are in them,
while brave men are keen in the moment of action, but
quiet beforehand.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
EN, 6
As we have said, then, courage is a mean with
respect to things that inspire confidence or fear, in the
circumstances that have been stated; and it chooses
or endures things because it is noble to do so, or
because it is base not to do so. But to die to escape
from poverty or love or anything painful is not the
mark of a brave man, but rather of a coward; for it is
softness to fly from what is troublesome, and such a
man endures death not because it is noble but to fly
from evil.
8/14/15
(c) Lawrence M. Hinman
THE MOST IMPORTANT VIRTUE
Phronesis/Prudence in Virtue Ethics it is this with
which the person addresses the situation before
analysing what would be the virtuous thing to do!
ALASDAIR MACINTYRE
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After Virtue 1981
– Modern ethical debate is “INTERMINABLE”
– Goes on and on and on
– Has no “TERMINUS”
– Focus on ethical language etc. removes moral philosophy from people’s lives.
– We are in…
– Modern Dark Ages
– Modern Moral Vacuum
– Words such as good, moral, no longer have any meaning
• Aristotle’s Virtues need to be reasserted in modern
society e.g. Education, Politics etc.
• All that we have today are PRACTICAL ‘virtues’ geared
entirely to success & pleasure
• “Morality is simply the expression of
personal preference in a culture which has
abandoned the virtues and rejected the
sense of community.”
It follows from this that different societies have different values. For
MacIntyre, virtues change over time. This can be seen by looking at
different societies, and MacIntyre explains the reasons why virtues
change. The Homeric virtues included physical strength, courage,
cunning and friendship. In small tribal communities that could be
attacked at any time, cunning, strength, even ruthlessness may be
virtuous. As villages developed into large cities, these virtues
changed. The Athenian virtues included Justice and Temperance,
and physical strength was no longer so important. Whereas cunning
used to be prized, more value would now be put on Wisdom, the sort
of understanding of human behaviour that could navigate through
complex conflicts that might arise with so many people living together.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL
GOODS
MacIntyre calls the virtues or qualities of character 'internal goods'. He says we also
place value on 'external goods'. Aristotle would have agreed here. The idea that we
could be 'penniless but happy' did not come from Aristotle. He would have said that
having good food, a decent place to live and clothes to wear is all part of the
eudaimon life. Put another way, Aristotle would ask if the house, clothes and food
would make a poor person happier. If they would, they must be part of eudaimonia, as
eudaimonia is as good as it gets. Physical well-being, food, clothing, housing etc. are
called 'external goods'.
MacIntyre also talks of 'practices'. He says that certain activities, such as painting, the
opera etc., are good in and of themselves and not merely because of the pleasure (i.e.
other goods) that they lead to.
To summarise MacIntyre in one sentence (which is exactly the sort of thing he hates),
he says that we value different qualities of character, practices and physical things,
and that by understanding historical and social context, we can understand ethical
issues that arise.
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VE can be a little
Difficult to grasp at first
So if at first you
Don’t succeed
Try and remember that VE has
10 As!
TRY TO REMEMBER 10 AS
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ACTION
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AGENT
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ARISTOTLE •
ARETE
AQUINAS
ANTI
ANSCOMBE
ALISDAIR
“AFTER
VIRTUE”
• A LA MODE
REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 AS
OF VE
1. ACTION – the Deontological and Teleological
approach to ethics is based on action, on how you
answer the question: “What is it right or obligatory to
do?”
2. AGENT – the VE approach is to begin by focussing
on the person as whole, on what makes a good
person, on how a person can become better, on the
agent who performs the actions.
REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 AS
OF VE
3. ARISTOTLE – VE has its roots in the writings of
Aristotle.
4. ARETE – In his Ethics Aristotle described how what
was needed to be a good human being was to
develop excellence – arete. Virtues are examples of
human excellence. Hence VE is sometimes called
Aretaic Ethics.
REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 AS
OF VE
5. AQUINAS – In the 13th century, Aquinas confirmed
the importance of VE by making it Christian.
6. ANTI- – From the time of the Enlightenment
onwards, an anti-VE approach developed as morality
was thought of in terms of emotion (Hume and later
Ayer), universal moral law (Kant), greatest happiness
for the greatest number (Bentham and Mill).
REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 AS
OF VE
7. ANSCOMBE – In 1958 Elizabeth Anscombe urged a
return to Aristotle arguing that “good” when applied to
an action is nonsense – it must be applied to the
agent.
8. ALISDAIR – Anscombe’s writing was followed by
Alisdair MacIntyre who condemned the whole
approach to ethics since the enlightenment.
REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 AS
OF VE
9. AFTER VIRTUE – MacIntyre’s theory was published
in the book ‘After Virtue’ 1981. He argued that a
rediscovery of Virtues is essential to counter the
modern moral “dark ages” which society has
entered.
10. A LA MODE – following MacIntyre’s work it would
be true to say that VE has become increasingly
popular and influential. It is the ethical theory a la
mode.
WHAT IT IS NOT!
VE is not Action centred
Therefore VE is not
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Deontological
Teleological
It is an approach to Ethics which
needs a different perspective