Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Ancient Greek astronomy wikipedia , lookup
Athenian democracy wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Greek contributions to Islamic world wikipedia , lookup
Economic history of Greece and the Greek world wikipedia , lookup
History of science in classical antiquity wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek warfare wikipedia , lookup
Archaic Greece wikipedia , lookup
Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 Classical Greece Beginning about 800 B.C. on the peninsula and islands of Greece and surrounding territory in the eastern Mediterranean, a center of classical civilization began to emerge. Classical Greek civilization was built on earlier regional civilizations, which had constructed elaborate monuments, developed a form of writing, and produced strong monarchies. Influenced by cultures in the Middle East and Egypt, civilization on the island of Crete and around Mycenae on the Greek mainland had flourished for several centuries around 2000 B.C. Greek-speaking people spread around the Aegean Sea, setting the basis for a culture that could include important parts of modern Turkey, Greece, and the Balkans. Greece As A Classical Civilization Only after 800 B.C., would a full-fledged classical society began to take shape, exhibiting many basic features in common with the classical phase of civilization in China and India. Like the other classical societies, Greek civilization would extend over a wide region. Greek influence would spread well beyond the peninsula itself, to much of the Middle East, part of North Africa, Sicily, and southern Italy. Classical Greece developed the second major feature of all the classical civilizations by demonstrating new political and cultural capacities. A greater variety of philosophies and political forms developed; science and mathematics advanced, building on previous achievements; the ability to organize large empires arose. More elaborate forms of trade, philosophy, and government define this classical society. Finally, there was an ongoing heritage of values and institutions between classical civilization in the Mediterranean and later cultures, making the long classical period a foundation for the development of the Western world. Although Greek politics and culture flourished between about 800-400 B.C. and then began to decline, it’s influence can be felt even today. A Vital Legacy For most people in the Western world,Greece is the first phase of "our own" classical past. The framers of the Constitution of the United States were intensely conscious of Greek political ideas. Designers of public buildings in the United States have dutifully copied Greek and Roman models. Plato and Aristotle continue to be thought of as founders of our philosophical tradition, skillful teachers still imitate the Socratic method in seeking dialogues with students, and modern science owes much to Greek formulations. The United States and Western Europe unquestionably owe a great debt to the achievements of the classical Mediterranean. We need to understand Greek civilization in order to understand our own society. The Emergence Of Greek Artistic Forms During the 8th century B.C., the Greeks adapted the Phoenician alphabet for writing their own language, therefore creating the literal basis for a new civilization. This alphabet was easier to learn than any writing system previously devised. The advancement of literacy further stimulated trade by aiding in the exchange of commercial information, and also enhanced cultural life. It was at this point that two great poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, which focused on the legendary war with Troy, were written down, possibly by the poet Homer. The Homeric achievement drew together many separate stories and set forth definitions of the gods and human nature that shaped later Greek thinking profoundly. Soon after the Homeric epics were written, other writers in several cities, including the famous woman poet Sappho, began writing poems. A distinctive Greek art also began to emerge. 1 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 Architects defined the shape of the Greek temple as an oblong building framed by pillars. Early Greek sculptors used Egyptian models, but then moved toward more realistic portrayals including full profile figures. Geometric designs on pottery similarly yielded to more realistic scenes of human activities, reflecting yet again the growing appreciation of human beauty and the importance of individual human beings. The Rise Of The City-States: The Political Core Of Greek Civilization Greek politics also took shape in the three centuries after 800 B.C. Greek government revolved around the city-state unit, called by the Greeks the Polis. A polis was the city and the surrounding agricultural land. The Polis could be quite tiny or, like Sparta (one of the key city-states), they could embrace a substantial area. Athens, the most famous city-state, was about the size of the state of Rhode Island. The polis came naturally to Greece, because a mountainous terrain and numerous islands made larger connections difficult. By 600 B.C., nearly 300 independent city-states had developed in Greece. While the polis promoted frequent wars, since no single city predominated, it did encourage a political life of unusual intensity. Sice the polis was small, each individual had a much closer and stronger relationship to his government.So much was this the case that the Greek word for city-state government - polis - serves as the origin of our word politics. Early Greek poleis were mainly ruled by land owning aristocrats, a warrior class who were still responsible for most military activities. Free farmers were also citizens, supporting the government and often participating in periodic assemblies though not ruling directly. Councils of various sorts played a vital role in the early Greek city-states, even when there was a single king or other ruler. Warrior-aristocrats frequently met with the ruler to advise on matters of state, and they expected their advice to be taken seriously. With the commercial expansion that began in the 8th century, aristocratic rule was often disputed. Some city-states escaped major contests, for they remained largely agricultural, but in active trading centers, merchants and a growing urban manufacturing group resented aristocratic rule. Furthermore, in many areas agriculture itself changed. Landlords began to specialize in growing olives and grapes and in manufacturing cooking oil and wines.The landlords began importing cheap grain from colonies in Asia, Egypt, and Sicily in order to provide basic foodstuffs. These imports progressively squeezed out local independent farmers, creating a growing gulf between the rich and poor. The ideals of widespread citizenship were contradicted by these developments. By the 6th century B.C. there was growing social protest, pitting urban groups and dispossessed farmers against the aristocracy. Many reformers emphasized developing new laws to regulate economic relationships. They based their reforms upon traditions of political participation, which held that the community should govern itself. Hence in many cases reformers arose to try to restore earlier ideals of citizenship while dealing with the new social tensions. Solon, a reformer in Athens early in the 6th century, set up laws that would ease the burden of debts on the farmers by prohibiting slavery for such debts. The idea developed that laws could be written and revised, rather than being passed down unaltered from tradition; here was one source of new political interest and participation. Other forces pressed for political change. Military activity increasingly involved larger numbers of citizens who formed tightly organized and well-coordinated lines of hoplite infantry. Naval forces, in the port cities, such as Athens, also depended on citizen participation. This development increased the need for strong bonds among citizens within the polis. By 500 B.C., most cities strongly believed in the importance of loyalty to the community, which itself would be regulated by law rather than custom or purely personal relationships. Participation in public life became a widespread ideal. The dominant religion also supported this ideal of political unity and involvement. Each city-state had its own patron god or goddess, and regular rituals called forth prayer and ceremony on behalf of the city's well2 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 being. These ceremonies included plays, choruses, sporting events, and religious exercises, all calling attention to the power and unity of the polis. When, in 399 B.C., the philosopher Socrates was condemned by a jury in Athens for corrupting his students by encouraging skepticism and doubt, he was given a choice between exile and death: he chose death because, as he said, the city had been the source of his character and he owed it obedience; better to die than to be apart. This spirit of political devotion and participation was the most common ingredient of city-state life. It showed itself in the willingness of citizens to serve in the military at their own expense and to sponsor plays, poetry contests, temples, and other public buildings. The Rise Of Democracy In Athens By the 5th century, Athens proudly took the lead in the development of democracy. Athens had undergone a fairly standard political evolution prior to its democratic flowering in the 5th century. Solon expanded the citizenship rights of most adult males. Citizens could elect a council that monitored the aristocratic government. A new reform leader, Clisthenes, reestablished a council, elected by all citizens, that prepared agendas for an assembly composed of the citizens themselves. Athens was ready to become not only the most powerful but also the most fully developed of the Greek democracies of the 5th century. Full-blown Athenian democracy continued to depend on the as principle authority. All decisions of state had to be approved by the popular assembly, and there were no restrictions on who could debate or propose in assembly meetings. This was direct democracy - the word itself comes from the Greek word for people, demos. Since the assembly met frequently, only a minority of citizens actually had time to attend regularly, and a few leading speakers usually dominated. Citizen voice, however, had other outlets. The army was composed of citizens, whose active service and coordinated maneuvers expressed the spirit of the democratic polis. Citizens also served as jurors in court trials, and every judicial decision could be appealed to a citizen board. Most officials were selected by lot on grounds that any citizen could and should serve as administrator. A few key officials - the generals and imperial treasurers were elected, usually from the nobility, but like all officials they were carefully assessed by the assembly and might be removed or punished for faulty service. Terms of office were brief, further to encourage popular control. Only a few positions in the area of military leadership were reserved for appointment. This was a democracy of a different sort from the version common today. It depended on the small size of the city-state and the intensive participation of its citizens. Furthermore, many adults were excluded from political rights. Women, though they might be citizens in terms of treatment by the law, had no rights of political participation. Half of all adult males were not citizens in any sense, being slaves or foreigners. The Athenian leader Pericles, who guided Athens during its decades of greatest glory after the mid-5th century, was an aristocrat who managed to direct affairs year after year through wise manipulation of political groups and his own prestige, whether or not he held formal office. Many Athenians, and even more Greeks in citystates where democracy did not go as far, continued to believe that real political virtue lay in aristocratic rule (aristocracy being derived from the Greek word aristos or "rule of the best"). Sparta continued to represent the aristocratic alternative. By the end of the 5th century, when Athens plunged into a devastating war with Sparta, the polis demonstrated some of the weaknesses as well as the strengths of democracy. Ordinary citizens worked hard in the war, but often pressed for reckless expeditions that weakened the state in its military efforts and contributed substantially to ultimate defeat. Cautious leaders were overturned in favor of crowd-pleasers who promised lucrative colonial ventures or an expansion of government payments to poorer citizens. 3 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 Greek Unity During the four centuries when Greek political forms evolved, many city-states sent out additional colonies, which expanded exposure to Greek political values. Colonies helped relieve population pressure at home. They also provided vital grain supplies to the mainland while serving as markets for processed products, including wine, cooking oil, and manufactured goods. By the 5th century, Greek colonies dotted the Mediterranean coast of present-day Turkey, the entire coastline of the Black Sea, and key points in North Africa, Italy, and even southern France and Spain. By providing new wealth, colonies greatly supported political and cultural vigor in Greece itself. At their best from 750-420 B.C., Greek politics included some important common efforts, in addition to the focus on separate government units. The Greek city-states were capable of sufficient coordination to deal with a variety of general problems. They joined in regular celebrations such as the athletic competitions of the Olympic games, which grouped wrestlers and runners in often bitter (and occasionally rigged) competitions. They supported some common religious organizations, such as the oracle priests at Delphi whose predictions and advice were widely sought. More important was the collaboration that allowed Greece to defeat its most pressing outside enemy, the great empire of Persia. The Persian and Peloponnesian Wars Soon after Cyrus the Great created the Persian Empire, he turned against wealthy Greek colonies along the Asian side of the Mediterranean, conquering them by about 540 B.C. Persian power became an obvious threat to the Greek mainland, forcing cooperation between Athens and Sparta, the most powerful city-states. In 499 B.C. the conquered Greek cities rebelled against the Persians, and were aided by the Athenian navy. The rebellion failed, and the Persian kings (Darius I, then Xerxes) moved against Greece in punishment. In 480 B.C. a Persian army of 100,000 troops moved down the Greek peninsula, initially winning great success and capturing Athens. But the Athenians built a new fleet, which defeated the Persian navy and cut off supplies, and then a Spartan-led force defeated the Persian army. While Persia continued to dominate the Middle East, Greek independence was preserved. The greatest age of Greek politics and culture followed, including the perfection of Athenian political institutions and the Age of Pericles. The wars against Persia provided some of the most dramatic moments in classical Greek history. In the battle at Thermopylae, 300 Spartans and a few thousand Greek soldiers blocked a huge Persian army until they were betrayed by local Greeks and caught from behind. After a crucial Athenian naval victory at Marathon, a runner labored over 26 miles to bring news to the city, collapsing after the word was passed. The final Greek triumph, celebrated later by the historian Herodotus, who praised Greek justice over the excessive ambition of the Persians, helped the Greeks define their separate identity as a society different from the Asian empire. Yet the Greek political structure was also fragile. With so many different government units, division could easily override common purpose. Diversity also produced animosity, with democrats and aristocrats glaring at each other both within and among poleis. A new and bitter conflict between the leading states set the stage for declining political vigor within Greece itself. Athens Vs. Sparta In the years following the Persian defeat Athens began to form an empire of its own. The Athenians quickly rebuilt their city, leading to a huge impetus for Greek art and architecture. Athenian naval power helped organize an alliance of lesser Greek cities, which Athens quickly dominated. The growing imperial power of Athens attracted competition from Sparta, which had its own alliance system of land-based citystates. Competition for power in the Greek peninsula in the later 5th century B.C. - each side fearing that the other might gain a dominant position - was heightened by ideological conflicts between aristocracy and democracy. Sparta stood for the old Greece before extensive commerce and massive political change. 4 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 Aristocratic rule had been transformed into a highly military regime in which boys were trained for battle and girls for the bearing of brave sons; Spartan militarism was designed to keep a large force of near-slaves, who did the agricultural work, under control. Use of money was discouraged by minting coins of unwieldy size. Discipline and control were the themes of Spartan society. Athens contrasted with Sparta by encouraging extensive trade and a vibrant, creative culture, while its democracy contrasted with the narrow aristocratic dominance of Sparta. Both sides were quite aware of their differences and disliked the principles of the rival society intensely. Both also drew allies from likeminded poleis. Sparta had unexpected advantages because its traditional principles were widely admired, even by some conservative Athenians. The heavy-handedness of Athens's empire also drew hostility from many smaller cities. War broke out in 431 B.C., as Spartan forces marched into Athenian territory. During the second year of the war a massive plague broke out in Athens, ultimately killing one-third of the population, including Pericles. Grievances rose in Athens, and there was no longer a leader to provide consistent guidance. A victory over Spartan troops brought a chance for peace, but a warlike faction in Athens insisted on continuing the war, seeking to conquer new territory while wasting precious Athenian resources. The attempt to invade Sicily failed, costing Athens over 200 ships, 4500 men, and the support of many allies. Finally, in 404 B.C. a Spartan general cut off the Athenian food supply, and the city had to surrender. Athens was deprived of its remaining fleet, and the city walls were torn down. A political age came to an end not only in Athens, but in all of Greece. Greek Creativity In Culture The genius of Greek civilization lay more obviously in various facets of culture than in politics. It was Greek culture that determined the most lasting contributions of this civilization to the Mediterranean world, and that served as a model for Western civilization The Greeks did not create a major religion. The characteristic Greek religion was a rather primitive, derived from animist belief in the spirits of nature elevated into a complex set of gods and goddesses who were seen as interfering in human life. The Greeks thus had a creator or father god, Zeus, who presided over an unruly assemblage of deities whose functions ranged from regulating the daily passage of the sun (Apollo) or the oceans (Poseidon) to inspiring war or human love and beauty. Specific gods were associated with other human activities such as metalworking, the hunt, literature, and history. Regular ceremonies to the gods had real political importance, and many individuals sought the gods' aid in foretelling the future or in assuring a good harvest or good health. Stories of the gods' activities provided rich entertainment and could drive home lessons about appropriate moral behavior, including courage and humility. This was a religion,that served many human needs and cemented community loyalties. It was not, however, intensely spiritual. Greek religion tended toward a human-centered, worldly approach. Stories of the gods allowed illustration of human qualities, rather like soap operas on a larger scale; the gods could be jealous, sneaky, lustful, and powerful. Greek religion helped create an important literary tradition. In the Greek religion the gods primarily provided good stories or served as as a way to inquire deeply into human passions and vulnerabilities. Philosophy The limitations of Greek religion left many literate and educated people dissatisfied. The religion provided stories about how the world came to be as it is, but scant basis for systematic inquiry into nature or human society nor did it provide an elaborate basis for ethical thought. Hence, from at least the 6th century onward, many Greek thinkers attempted to generate philosophical systems separate from a primarily religious base. 5 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 The attempt to understand humankind, society, and nature by rational observation and deduction became one of the hallmarks of Greek culture. Many thinkers sought to generate ethical systems on the basis of rational definitions of right and wrong and some sense of the purpose of life on earth. Socrates (born in 465 B.C. and the tutor of Plato, who in turn would teach Aristotle) urged people to consider the bases of right action in terms of rational reflection on goals and consequences, he thus formulated secular criteria, rather than devising rewards and punishments from a religious system. Aristotle, perhaps the most important of the Greek philosophers, maintained this ethical system through stressing the importance of moderation in human behavior against the instability of political life in Athens and the excesses of the gods. Greek philosophy further devoted much attention to defining appropriate political structures. The Athenian philosopher Plato, in the 5th century, devised an ideal government structure in which philosophers would rule. Religious justifications for political behavior were played down in favor of arguments of utility and practicality or more general definitions of justice. The idea of a philosophy separate from official religion, though not necessarily hostile to it, also encouraged considerable emphasis on the powers of human thought. In Athens, Socrates encouraged his pupils to question received wisdom on the ground that the chief human duty was "the improvement of the soul." Socrates himself ran afoul of the Athenian government in the aftermath of the tensions of the Peloponnesian War, for he seemed to be undermining political loyalty itself with his constant questions. But the Socratic principle of thinking things through by means of skeptical questioning, rather than assuming on the basis of authority or faith, became a foundation of classical Greek thinking and education and was part of its heritage to later societies. Socrates' great pupil, Plato, accentuated the positive somewhat more strongly in suggesting that human reason could approach an understanding of the perfect forms - the absolutely True, Good, and Beautiful that he believed underlay nature. Thus a philosophical tradition arose in Greece that tended to play down the importance of religion in favor of a celebration of the human power to think. Greek interest in rationality carried over into inquiry into the underlying order of physical nature.Greek interest lay in speculations about nature's order. Greek belief in rational theorizing produced widespread philosophical commitment to a scientific method that would combine empirical data with general theories. In practice, the Greek concern translated into a host of theories about the motions of the planets and the organization of elemental principles of earth, fire, air, and water, and into a considerable interest in mathematics as a means of rendering nature's patterns comprehensible. The Arts Despite the importance of the rationalist tradition, science and mathematics loomed far less large than art and literature in conveying key cultural values in Greece. Greek drama took a central role. Greek dramatists worked both on comedy and on tragedy. The Greeks placed greatest emphasis on tragedy. Their belief in human reason and balance also involved a sense that these virtues were precarious, so that a person could easily overstep and be ensnared in situations of powerful emotion and uncontrollable consequences. The Athenian dramatist Sophocles, for example, so portrayed the psychological flaws of his hero Oedipus that modern psychology long used the term Oedipus complex to refer to potentially tragic attachments between a man and his mother. Another Athenian playwright, Aristophanes, used similar beliefs in the limitations of human experience to produce a sense of comedy, poking fun at the failures of human nature. Greek literature contained a strong epic tradition as well, starting with the beautifully crafted tales of the Iliad and the Odyssey. By the 5th century B.C., interest in human affairs led to a new kind of formal historical 6 Western Civilization 101 Mavrogianes Spring 2010 writing with Herodotus trying to sort out fact from myth in dealing with various Mediterranean cultures and Thucydides composing a vivid account of the Peloponnesian War. In the visual arts, the emphasis of classical Mediterranean civilization lay in sculpture and architecture, though Greek artists also advanced in ceramic work. In Athens's brilliant 5th century B.C. - the age of Pericles, Socrates, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and many other intensely creative figures - sculptors such as Phidias developed unprecedented skill in simultaneously realistic yet beautiful portrayals of the human form, from lovely goddesses to muscled warriors and athletes. The Principles Of Greek Culture Overall, Greek cultural achievement rested on four major principles. First, the interest in formal political theory, with a strong emphasis on debating the merits of different constitutional structures and assuming that government forms could be planned, obviously reflected the distinctive political atmosphere of Greece. If Greek politics faced frequent crises, its incorporation in political thought and history gave it a longer life and wider subsequent influence. Second, art and sculpture served on the whole to glorify human achievement, starting with a celebration of the beauties of the ideal human form, used also to represent the gods. Third, drama and philosophy stressed the importance of human striving, though comedy might poke fun and tragedy might emphasize the inevitable limits. This characteristic joined with the emphases of the visual arts in stressing secular over otherworldly themes. And while ethical philosophers might enjoin moderation, there was a fascination with human energy and striving rather different from the more consistent restraint urged in secular Chinese thought. Fourth, the philosophical and scientific tradition emphasized the validity of logical constructs in understanding the natural world. 7