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Oatlands College Theory Book
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Oatlands College Theory Book
The Human Body
Introduction
This section will deal with the human body, concentrating on the skeleton, muscles and main
organs. It will look at how these work together to help our bodies to move.
The skeleton, bones and joints
Skeletons are far from scary, they’re actually pretty amazing. Packed with over 200 bones,
skeletons protect, shape, support and move our bodies, as well as producing red blood cells in
the bone marrow. Your vertebral column or spine is divided into five sections and influences
movement during sport. Joints are also important, giving you the freedom to flex or rotate
parts of your body. However this gets harder with age, as your bones lose their strength and
density.
Functions of the skeleton
The skeleton has over 200 bones. For the exam you need to be able to identify the main bones
in the body.
You also need to understand the five functions of the skeleton. These are:
1. Protection - the cranium and ribs protect the brain and vital organs in the chest.
2. Shape - gives shape to the body and makes you tall or short.
3. Support - holds your vital organs in place when playing sport. The vertebral column
holds the body upright.
4. Movement - muscle are attached to bones, which are jointed. When the muscles
contract the bones move.
5. Blood production - red blood cells (to carry oxygen) and white blood cells (to protect
against infection) are produced in the bone marrow of some bones.
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Fig. 1.1 Labelled Skeleton
The vertebral column can be divided into five sections. Each has a role in sport:
Fig 1.2 Vertebral column
Cervical
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smallest vertebrae
support the head and neck
top vertebra (atlas) allows head to nod
second vertebra (axis) allows head to rotate
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Thoracic
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ribs are attached to the thoracic vertebrae, making a protective cage
allow some movement, bending forward, backward and side to side
Lumbar
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largest vertebrae
large range of movement allows much flexibility; bending forward, backward and
side to side
prone to injury
Sacrum
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bones of sacral vertebrae are fused together
make a strong base and transmit force from legs to upper body
Coccyx
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fused vertebrae, no special use
Discs

cartilage discs between vertebrae act as shock absorbers
Joints and their function
A joint is where two or more bones meet. The hip is a typical synovial joint. All synovial
joints have the same components:
Fig 1.3 Joints
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Synovial joints
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Cartilage reduces friction. Acts as a shock absorber.
Synovial fluid lubricates the joint.
Synovial membrane produces synovial fluid.
Tendon joins muscle to bone enabling movement.
Ligament joins bone to bone, stabilising the joint.
In sport you move your limbs in different directions using joint actions. Use the following
terms to describe the movements:
Movement
Description
Abduction Movement away from the mid-line of the body
Adduction Movement towards the mid-line of the body
Extension Straightening limbs at a joint
Flexion Bending the limbs at a joint.
Rotation A circular movement around a fixed point
The three most important types of synovial joint in sport are:
Type of joint
Example(s) in the body
Elbow, knee
Hinge
Ball and
Shoulder, hip
Socket
Between the atlas and axis in the
Pivot
neck
Types of movement possible
Flexion, extension
Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction,
rotation
Rotation
Fig 1.4 Types of Joints
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Bone growth
The bones of embryos are made largely of cartilage. They are soft. The process of
ossification uses calcium to create bone as the child grows and matures. Bones gradually
become hard and strong. With age bones lose their density and strength. When severe this is
called osteoporosis. Eating foods containing calcium and exercising regularly helps bones to
develop and stay stronger for longer.
Fig1.5 Bone growth
There are 4 types of bone:
Type of
bone
Example
Function in sport
Femur,
Movement - to generate strength and speed
humerus
Carpals, tarsal Shock absorption - spreading load
Short
Protection of vital organs, attachment of muscles to help
Flat (Plate) Ribs, cranium
movement
Irregular Vertebrae, face Provide shape, protection
Long
Fig1.6 The composition of a long bone
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Hyaline cartilage - covers the ends of the bones, stops them rubbing together and
absorbs shock.
Epiphysis - the ‘head’ of the bone.
Cancellous bone - spongy bone that stores the red bone marrow; where blood cells
are made.
Epiphyseal plate – the area where bones grow in length.
Diaphysis - the shaft.
Compact bone – hard, dense bone. It gives strength to the hollow part of the bone.
Periosteum – a protective layer where there is no hyaline cartilage. Ligaments and
tendons attach to the periosteum.
Medullary cavity/marrow cavity - contains the yellow bone marrow; where white
blood cells are made.
Muscles and movement
The heart is made of a unique muscle type known as cardiac and it never tires. But the body
also has many other paired muscles, some voluntary that are attached to the skeleton and help
the body move, some involuntary that work the internal organs and cannot be controlled.
Muscles and posture also go hand in hand, where regular exercise tones muscle and improves
your posture to reduce strain on other parts of the body.
Muscle types
Fig 1.7 Sprinters have more fast twitch fibres
Cardiac muscle is unique to the heart. It never tires.
The body's involuntary muscles work our internal organs. They are outside our control.
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Voluntary muscles make the body move. They are attached to the skeleton and can be
controlled.
Voluntary muscles have fast twitch and slow twitch fibres. Fast twitch fibres contract
quickly, but do not use oxygen well and tire quickly. Slow twitch fibres contract slowly, but
use oxygen well and keep going for a long time. Top sprinters have more 'fast twitch' fibres.
Endurance athletes tend to have more 'slow twitch' fibres.
Voluntary muscles
Name of muscle
Function
Extend the arm at the elbow
Triceps
Flex the arm at the elbow
Biceps
Move the arm in all directions at the shoulder
Deltoids
Adduct the arm at the shoulder
Pectorals
Hold the shoulders in place, move head back and
Trapezius
sideways
Example in sport
Press-up, throwing a javelin
Pull-up, drawing a bow in archery
Bowling a cricket ball
Forehand drive in tennis
Holding head up in rugby scrum
Gluteals
Adduct and extend leg at the hips
Quadriceps
Hamstrings
Gastrocnemius
Latissimus
dorsi
Extend the leg at the knee
Flex the leg at the knee
Pointing the toes, help to flex the knee
Pulling back leg before kicking a
ball
Kicking a ball jumping upwards
Bending knee before kicking a ball
Running
Adduct and extend the arm at the shoulder
Butterfly stroke in swimming
Abdominals
Flex the trunk across the stomach
Pulling the body down when
hurdling
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The key voluntary muscles used in sport are shown in the illustration.
Fig 1.8 Drawing a bow uses the biceps.
Origin and insertion of muscles The origin is the end of a muscle which is attached to a
fixed bone. The insertion is the end of the muscle that is attached to the bone which moves.
These diagrams show the major muscles you need to know. It is important to know where
they are situated on your body and the muscles names.
Fig 1.9 Voluntary Muscles
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Muscles and movement
Fig 1.10 In a tug of war muscles contract isometrically
Muscles contract when they work. If a muscle contracts to create movement, it is called an
isotonic contraction.
An isotonic contraction can be concentric, which is where the muscle shortens as the fibres
contract or eccentric, where the fibres contract as the muscle lengthens.
When a muscle contracts with no resulting movement, it is an isometric contraction.
Muscle pairs
Antagonistic pairs of muscles create movement when one (the prime mover) contracts and
the other (the antagonist) relaxes. Examples of antagonistic pairs working are:

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the quadriceps and hamstrings in the leg
the biceps and triceps in the arm
Fig1.11 Antagonistic Pair
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Fig1.12 Antagonistic Pair
Muscle tone and posture
Muscle tone can be seen when muscles are in a state of slight tension and they are ready for
action. Regular training tones muscles and helps to create good posture. In addition, muscles
will hypertrophy (increase in size) and develop better endurance.
Muscle tone developed by regular exercise makes daily tasks such as shopping and gardening
easier. It also helps to prevent injury as good posture reduces the strain on muscles, tendons
and ligaments.
Fig 1.13 Good posture is important to tennis players.
Good posture helps with sporting performance as special positions are often crucial to
success, eg the position throughout the golf swing.
People with good posture also feel better about themselves. An upright body position is often
a sign of self confidence. People who are less confident will sometimes show this in their
body language, for example by adopting a slouched posture.
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Organs
Fig 1.13 Organs of the Body
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Cardiovascular System
The Human Heart
Fig 1.14 Cardiovascular System
Fig1.15 Structure of a Human Heart
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Respiratory System
Fig 1.16 The Human Respiratory System
Digestive System
Fig 1.17 The Human Digestive System
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Health and fitness
There are plenty of reasons why getting off the couch and into your games kit is a good thing.
Our bodies are like cars; they need to move to function well!
Physically, sport helps you lose weight, enjoy a more toned body and show stamina on the
sports field. Regular exercise also boosts self-confidence and mental concentration. Even if
you’re no Tommy Walsh, being fit is a big plus; enhancing co-ordination, agility and
cardiovascular fitness. You’ll probably even pick up some new mates whilst you’re at it.
Benefits of Activity
Regular exercise improves health and fitness. Health is defined as a state of complete mental,
physical and social well-being; not merely the absence of illness or infirmity. Fitness is the
ability to meet the demands of the environment.
Mental benefits include:
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improved confidence
relief of stress/tension and stress related illness
Physical benefits include:
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losing weight
improved posture
improved body shape
Social benefits include:
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meeting people
making friends
Fig 1.18 Competing improves self esteem
Fig 1.19 Sport is a good way of relieving stress
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Being a member of a sports club and regularly participating in sport will develop personal
qualities from:
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Co-operation – working with others.
Competition – testing yourself against others.
Physical challenge – testing yourself against the environment or your best
performances.
Aesthetic appreciation – recognizing quality of movement in a performance.
Health related fitness factors
Everyone needs to have a level of fitness for everyday activities.
Health related exercise improves the health related fitness factors which are also useful to
sportspeople. These are:
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Cardiovascular fitness is the ability to exercise the whole body for long periods of
time and is sometimes called stamina.
Muscular strength is the amount of force a muscle can exert against a resistance. It
helps sportspeople to hit, tackle and throw.
Muscular endurance is the ability to use voluntary muscles many times without
becoming tired. It helps sportspeople to sprint or repeat quick actions for longer.
Flexibility is the range of movement possible at a joint. It helps performers to stretch
and reach further.
Body composition is the percentage of body weight which is fat, muscle or bone. It
helps sportspeople depending on the type of sport they play, eg heavy rugby players
are more effective in the scrum than lightweight players, but light long distance
runners will always beat heavyweights.
NB If you are studying AQA, you should also list speed as a health related fitness
factor.
Speed is the differential rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or
cover a distance in a period of time or how quickly an individual can move. This
helps all games players to move into position or get away from opponents quickly.
Fig 1.20 Flexibility helps footballers stretch for the ball.
Fig 1.21 Jogging improves cardiovascular fitness
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Skill related fitness factors
Sportspeople exercise to improve fitness and performance.
Skill related fitness factors are essential for success in sport.
These are:
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Agility - the ability to change the position of the body quickly and with control. This
helps team players dodge their opponents.
Balance - the ability to retain the centre of mass above the base of support when
stationary (static balance) or moving (dynamic balance). This helps gymnasts
maintain their position and prevents games players from falling over at speed.
Co-ordination - the ability to use two or more body parts together. This helps all
athletes to move smoothly and quickly especially when also having to control a ball.
Power - the ability to use strength at speed. This helps athletes to jump high, throw
far or sprint quickly. Power = Strength x Speed.
Reaction time - the time between the presentation of a stimulus and the onset of a
movement. This helps swimmers to make a fast start.
NB If you are studying Edexcel, you should list speed as a skill related fitness factor.
Speed is the differential rate at which an individual is able to perform a movement or
cover a distance in a period of time or how quickly an individual can move. This
helps all games players to move into position or get away from opponents quickly.
Fig 1.22 Dancers need good static and stationary balance
Fig 1.23 Rugby players use agility to dodge opponents
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Principles of training
Getting the best out of your training requires a little planning. The best training programmes
are built on principles of specificity, overload, progression and reversibility.
You can also use the FITT acronym to help remember the key things to consider when
tailoring programmes for individual sporting goals. It stands for; Frequency, Intensity, Time
and Type. Calculating the target zone also helps assess how much aerobic or anaerobic
training you need to do to improve fitness. Just don’t forget to warm down!
Fig 1.24 Training should be matched to an individual's needs
By using the principles of training as a framework we can plan a personal training
programme that uses scientific principles to improve performance, skill, game ability and
physical fitness.
A successful training programme will meet individual needs which are personal fitness
needs based on age, gender, fitness level and the sport for which we are training. A successful
training programme will also include exercise in the correct heart-rate target zone.
The key principles when planning a programme are:
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Specificity – training must be matched to the needs of the sporting activity to improve
fitness in the body parts the sport uses.
Overload - fitness can only be improved by training more than you normally do. You
must work hard.
Progression – start slowly and gradually increase the amount of exercise and keep
overloading.
Reversibility – any adaptation that takes place as a result of training will be reversed
when you stop training. If you take a break or don’t train often enough you will lose
fitness.
In planning a programme, use the FITT principles to add the detail:
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Frequency - decide how often to train.
Intensity - choose how hard to train.
Time - decide for how long to train.
Type - decide which methods of training to use.
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You should also consider the principle of moderation. It is important to have rest periods
which allow the body to adapt. Too much training (overtraining) can lead to injury.
Methods of training
Training can be aerobic or anaerobic.
Fig 1.25 Aerobic training improves cardiovascular fitness.
In aerobic exercise, which is steady and not too fast, the heart is able to supply enough
oxygen to the muscles. Aerobic training improves cardiovascular fitness.

Anaerobic exercise is performed in short, fast bursts where the heart cannot supply
enough oxygen to the muscles. Anaerobic training improves the ability of the muscles
to work without enough oxygen when lactic acid is produced.
Specific training methods can be used to improve each fitness factor.
Fig 1.26 Weight training improves muscular strength, endurance and power
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Circuit training involves performing a series of exercises in a special order called a
circuit. Each activity takes place at a 'station'. It can be designed to improve speed,
agility, coordination, balance and muscular endurance.
Continuous training involves working for a sustained period of time without rest. It
improves cardio-vascular fitness.
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Cross training involves using another sport or activity to improve your fitness. It
happens when an athlete trains in a different environment. For example a volleyball
player uses the power training for that sport to help with fitness for long jump.
Fartlek training or 'speed play' training involves varying your speed and the type of
terrain over which you run, walk, cycle or ski. It improves aerobic and anaerobic
fitness.
Interval training involves alternating between periods of hard exercise and rest. It
improves speed and muscular endurance.
Weight training uses weights to provide resistance to the muscles. It improves
muscular strength (high weight, low reps), muscular endurance (low weight, high
reps, many sets) and power (medium weight and reps performed quickly).
Altitude training is aerobic training high above sea level, where oxygen levels are
lower. It is used to increase aerobic fitness quickly.
General methods of training can be applied to specific sports. For example, continuous
training might involve swimming, cycling, rowing, aerobics or running.
Calculating target zones and thresholds of training
To train effectively you must know:
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Your current level of fitness
The amount of aerobic training you need for your sport
The amount of anaerobic training you need for your sport
For example, sprinters use mainly anaerobic training and marathon runners use mainly
aerobic training.
You can use your maximum heart rate (MHR) to calculate how hard you should work your
heart to develop either aerobic or anaerobic fitness.
To calculate MHR:

220 - age = MHR
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Fig 1.27 Improve aerobic fitness by working at 60-80% of MHR
Aerobic fitness is another way of describing cardiovascular fitness, or stamina. You can
improve aerobic fitness by working in your aerobic target zone. This is found between 6080% of your MHR. You cross your aerobic threshold, the heart rate above which you gain
aerobic fitness, at 60% of our MHR.
You can improve your anaerobic fitness, which includes strength, power and muscular
endurance, by working in your anaerobic target zone. This is found between 80-100% of your
MHR. Anaerobic threshold is the heart rate above which you gain anaerobic fitness. You
cross your anaerobic threshold at 80% of your MHR. Below 60% MHR you do not improve
your aerobic or anaerobic fitness at all.
When working anaerobically you create an oxygen debt and can only keep going for a short
time. Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen consumed during recovery above that which
would normally be consumed during rest. This results from a shortfall of available oxygen
during exercise.
You can monitor your fitness levels by recording your recovery rate after exercise. The
recovery rate is the time it takes for the pulse rate to return to normal after exercise.
Remember that percentages of MHR are approximate and personal levels of activity and
fitness will cause differences in the thresholds.
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Stages of a training session
Fig 1.28 Modified or conditioned games are used to improve technique.
Fig 1.29 Competing against team mates can be the session's
main activity.
1. Warm-up
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Whole body exercise to raise heart rate and body temperature.
Stretching to prepare muscles, ligaments and joints.
Practising skills and techniques to be used in the session.
2. Main activity - this could be:
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Fitness training - which may be linked to repeated technique work.
Skill development - drills or team practices.
Modified or Conditioned Games.
3. Warm down (sometimes called cool down)
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Light exercise to help remove carbon dioxide, lactic acid and other waste products.
Gentle stretching to prevent muscle soreness and stiffness later.
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Effects of training and exercise
After exercise, you’ll find your body experiences immediate and more gradual effects.
The minute you start training, you’ll notice more frequent muscle contraction, raised body
temperature and pulse, and deeper breathing known as tidal volume. Longer-term effects
occur as the body adapts to regular exercise, including your heart getting larger, bones
becoming denser and the vital capacity of your breath deepening.
Fig 1.30
Fig 1.31
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Fig 1.32
The bones, joints and muscles
Fig 1.33 Flexibility at joints increases with regular training
Immediate effects when first exercising:
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Muscles contract more often
Blood flow to muscles increases
Muscle temperature rises
Little effect on bones and joints
Effects of regular training:

Muscles increase in size (hypertrophy)
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Muscular endurance improves
Muscles, tendons and ligaments around joints get stronger
Joints become more stable and flexibility at joints increases
Bone width and density increases
The cardiovascular system
Immediate effects when first exercising:
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Heart contracts more often – increased heart rate.
Heart contracts more powerfully – increased stroke volume, which is the volume of
blood pumped from heart with each beat.
Blood diverted to muscles, eg it is diverted from the digestive system to the muscles.
Blood temperature rises.
Blood vessels near skin open to allow heat to be lost.
Effects of regular training:
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Heart muscle increases in size and strength.
Cardiac output increases. Cardiac means relating to the heart so this is the amount of
blood that the heart pumps out to the body.
Lower resting heart rate, quicker recovery from exercise.
Reduced risk of heart disease.
Increased number of capillaries in muscles.
Increased volume of blood and red blood cells.
The respiratory system
Immediate effects when first exercising:
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Increased rate of breathing
Increased depth of breathing – rise in tidal volume
Effects of regular training:
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Increased strength of diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
Greater number of alveoli.
Increased ability of the lungs to extract oxygen from the air.
Increased vital capacity.
Increased amount of oxygen delivered to, and carbon dioxide removed from, the
body.
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Age, psychological factors and technology
It takes more than your body alone to perform. Age dictates how much strength you have,
with optimum fitness experienced into your late twenties then declining by about 2% each
year after. Being motivated is also important - you know, the difference between feeling
really lazy versus wanting to go out there and kick some butt! Then again, it could be down
to your personality type, which may draw you to competitive team sports or closed skills. In
recent years, technology is another factor contributing to your PE prowess.
Age
Regular exercise and skill development are vital parts of growing up. However, heavy weight
training and extreme distances should not be attempted by children as both affect joints and
growth.
Performance increases with age until your late twenties. After that age strength and
endurance decline by 1-2% per year.
Fig 1.34 Performance potential increases with age until your late twenties.
Effects of ageing include:
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MHR (Maximum Heart Rate) decreases each year which means you can't work as
hard.
Arteries harden - blood flow to muscles is reduced.
Stroke volume, cardiac output and vital capacity decrease. This reduces VO2 Max
which is the maximum amount of oxygen that can be transported and used by the
body in 1 minute.
Muscles reduce in size and muscle strength decreases.
Muscle fibres change from fast twitch to slow twitch.
Body fat builds up as you are less able to use it for energy.
Training can improve performance and reduce the effects, but cannot prevent the decline.
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Psychological factors
Psychological factors are the mental factors that help or prevent sportspeople from being in
the right 'frame of mind' to perform well.
In sport you have to want to perform and to improve your performance. Your determination
to do this is called motivation. The intensity of it is called arousal.
If training leads to boredom you will lose motivation. If you are 'wound up' you are suffering
from anxiety: you will feel tension in your body and this can prevent you from performing
well. Feedback is information about the outcome of a performance and it can greatly affect
future performances.
Your personality can affect your choice of sports and performance:
Extroverts are socially outgoing. They need high arousal levels to perform. Coaches and
team mates need to keep them 'excited' about performing. They prefer team games with open
skills and lots of unpredictability. Open skills are used in sports where you cannot predict
what will happen next, eg in an invasion game such as hockey.
Introverts are usually shy. They perform better at lower arousal levels. Coaches and team
mates need to allow them to stay calm and focused. Too much stimulation will cause them to
be over-aroused and they will not perform well. They prefer sports with fine movements,
closed skills and regular routines. Closed skills are used in sports where you can control the
environment, eg putting in golf.
Fig 1.35Extroverts are well suited to team games
Fig 1.36 Introverts may be drawn to sports with closed
skills such as golf
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Some people like sports in which they can show direct aggression like boxing and rugby,
where players make contact with each other. Others prefer sports which involve indirect
aggression like tennis and volleyball, where players hit a ball to 'beat' their opponents.
Technology
Physiological and psychological factors have an impact on performance, but the use of
technology is becoming increasingly significant.
Technological advances are continuing to improve performance. Examples include:
Fig 1.37 Specialist footwear can improve performance
Equipment
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New materials and design used in tennis rackets, skis, footballs, javelins, bicycles etc
improve control, speed and distance.
Specialist clothing and footwear, including heat-reducing and lightweight materials
and hydrodynamic full-body swimming suits, improve speed and endurance.
Facilities
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All-weather surfaces, better drainage and roofed stadiums produce better playing
conditions.
Safety improvements in gymnastics training, including landing areas and harnesses,
encourage greater skill development.
ICT in training and coaching
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Use of video and statistical analysis helps identify areas for improvement and focuses
coaching to improve performance more effectively.
Fitness monitoring equipment analyses key physiological factors and helps with the
planning of effective training.
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Nutrition
Fig 1.38 Food Pyramid
Nutrition
At the risk of sounding like your mum, a balanced diet really is essential for good health.
There are seven building blocks for a healthy diet, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals and fibre. Add water to the mix and you’re shaping up nicely!
We take energy from food in the form of kilojoules. How much energy you need depends on
your body type and the amount of physical activity you do. How you use or store energy
influences your weight, shape and sporting performance.
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Diet
We all need to eat a balanced diet to maintain good health. It is vital that athletes have all the
nutrients they need to help them perform at their best.
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Energy requirements
The energy the body takes from food is measured kilojoules or kilocalories.You need enough
energy to meet the demands of your BMR and PAL.
BMR stands for Basic Metabolic Rate; the number of kilojoules you use to stay alive each
day.
PAL stands for Physical Activity Level; the number of kilojoules you use to fuel all of your
physical activity.
BMR + PAL = your daily energy requirement.
Big people need more energy for BMR. Athletes in endurance events and hard training need
more energy for PAL.
A heptathlete and a boxer will have different energy requirements
If you consume more energy than you use you will put on weight. If you consume less energy
than you use you will lose weight.
People who under-eat will not have enough energy to perform effectively.
Being overweight may not be a problem. It may be due to a person having a lot of muscle,
rugby players for example, so it's not always harmful. However, people who are overfat or
obese will not be effective sportspeople.
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Body types
There are 3 basic somatotypes (body types). Everyone tends towards one although few
people are totally one or another.
Your body type, shape and composition will determine how effective you are at sport.
Endmorphs are well suited to weighlifting
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Ectomorphs - narrow-shaped body, are thin faced, with little fat or muscle. This is
the ideal body type for long-distance runners.
Mesomorphs - wedge-shaped body, wide shoulders, narrow hips, muscular. Ideal
body type for sprinters.
Endomorphs - pear-shaped body, wide hips, wide shoulders, can have a lot fat on
body, arms and thighs. When fit, ideal body type for weightlifting, wrestling.
A person's ideal body weight depends on their body type, age, gender, height, the size of
their bones, and their muscle size. These factors also affect their participation and
performance in sport.
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