Download 1. introduction to analog electronics laboratory

1. INTRODUCTION TO ANALOG ELECTRONICS LABORATORY
EXPLANATION ABOUT THE LABORATORY

Students laboratory grades will be determined according to the 7 laboratory
works and the reports those must be done in term.

Each of the students has 8 experiments and students have to do all
experiments.

If students have valid excuse not to participate a laboratory experiment they
have to give their medical report etc. (for medical issues) to laboratory
coordinator or have to contact with laboratory coordinator.

Each of the students will prepare a report for each experiment. Student’s
name, surname, number, group number of experiment, date of experiment,
experiment name and number, the research assistant’s name and surname
should be written by each student to the report cover completely.

Reports will be returned to the experiment coordinator till the end of
experiment . After this time, the reports will not be accepted.
Experiment works
The laboratory evaluation of the students is done according to the preliminary
work, construction of the experiment and measurement evaluation of experimental
results.
Preliminary work
Each of the students is tested before the start of the experiment by research
assitants. The quiz will consist of 4 multiple choice and 1 classic question. Students
have to answer at least 2 multiple choice questions to enter the experiment. Those
expectations are expected from students:

Theoretical knowledge of the experiment that should be gotten from
experimental sheet and other sources (lecture notes, books etc.). Experimental
sheets can be downloaded from internet page. The theoritical information
about experiment is not limited to study only experimental sheet, students
have to research other sources to get enough knowledge.

Students should know the purpose of the experiment. They should know how
the experiment can be done and which measuring elements can be used. They
should also get measuring elements catalog information.
Construction of the experiment
All of the students in each group should participate in the experiment. The
following are considered to evaluate the experiment.

Approach to the problem

The accuracy of the results obtained

The success of the questioning and interpreting the results (detect unrealistic
results and have an idea about the causes)
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The use of tools (experiment material)

The ability to deal with emerging challenges

Efficient use of time

The attention given to the experiment
Each of the students in group is evaluated separately for these matters.
The evaluation of the experimental results
After the experiments, the results are perused. The following should be
considered:

Interpretation of the experimental results (the meanings and results of the
obtained data)

Comparison of theoretical and experimental results.
LABORATORY SCHEDULE:
INTRO
EXP-1
EXP-2
EXP-3
EXP-4
EXP-5
EXP-6
EXP-7
PROJECT
MAKE-UP
FINALS
Introduction to Laboratory Equipments and Agilent
VEE
Experimenting with Agilent VEE, Measuring MOSFET
Characteristics
Single Stage BJT Amplifiers
Frequency Response
Single Tuned Amplifiers
Single Stage MOSFET Amplifiers and MOSFET
Current Mirror
Differential and Operational Amplifiers
Audio Power Amplifiers
INTRODUCTION TO ANALOG ELECTRONIC
Although digital signal processing is the most common form of processing signals,
analog signal processing cannot be completely avoided since the real world is analog in
nature.
1. A sensor converts the real-world signal into an analog electrical signal. This analog
signal is often weak and noisy.
2. Amplifiers are needed to strengthen the signal. Analog filtering may be necessary to
remove noise from the signal. This “front end” processing improves the signal- to-noise
ratio. Three of the most important building blocks used in this stage are
(a) Operational Amplifiers,
(b) Analog Multipliers
(c) Analog Comparators.
3. An analog-to-digital converter transforms the analog signal into a stream of 0s and
1s.
Amplifier
Temperature
Pressure
Position
Speed
Flow
Humidity
Sound
Light
A/D converter
Power management
Logic
Embedded processing
Communication
Amplifier
D/A converter
Figure 1. Signal chain of electronic system

The digital data is processed by a CPU, such as a DSP, a microprocessor, or a
microcontroller. The choice of the processor depends on how intensive the
computation is. A DSP may be necessary when real-time signal processing is
needed and the computations are complex. Microprocessors and microcontrollers may suffice in other applications.

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
Digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) is necessary to convert the stream of 0s and
1s back into analog form.
The output of the DAC has to be amplified before the analog signal can drive an
external actuator.
A Power Management block is needed to provide power to the various blocks. In
modern-day VLSI chips, power dissipation is a major consideration so that we can
keep the power density under control. Since the source of power can be a
battery, it is important to ensure long battery life through techniques such as
clock gating, power gating, etc. The Power Management block is responsible for
these functions.
It is evident that analog circuits play a crucial role in the implementation of
an electronic system
The basic quantities in an electrical circuit are the voltage and current values among
each circuit element (branch). To measure these quantities, we use devices which are
actually other electrical circuits themselves. In other words, if our desire is to measure a
current value on an electrical circuit, we need to make that specific current flow through
another circuit (the measuring instrument) which is capable of telling us the current
value flowing through itself. This means we need to connect the measuring instrument
in “series” with the circuit. On the other hand, if our desire is to measure a voltage
value on an electrical circuit, we need to make that specific voltage applied to another
circuit (the measuring instrument) which is capable of telling us the voltage value
among itself. This, in turn, means we need to connect the measuring instrument in
“parallel” with the circuit. These measuring instruments which will be presented below
are called “multimeter” and “oscilloscope”. Multimeter is a measuring device which
operates as an ammeter or voltmeter with respect to the position of the switch on it. It
can also measure the resistance values of circuit values (That is why it is sometimes
called A(mpere)V(olt)O(hm)METER). Oscilloscope on the other hand, measures only
voltage quantities; however, it shows a certain voltage value on a circuit as a function of
time. Since each measuring device has its own internal resistance, when we try to
measure a current (voltage) quantity on a circuit element, this internal resistance is
connected to the element in series (parallel), and changes the electrical quantities on
the circuit. Owing to this fact generally the aim in the measuring problem is to make the
original system, on which the quantities desired to be measured are found, affected by
the measuring device as little as possible. We can check the amount of energy siphoned
by the measuring device from the actual system to understand this fact. Energy
∞
consumed by an element is given by the expression ∫0 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡. Therefore, if we
want the measuring device to siphon as little energy as possible from the circuit, the
voltage or current value across it must be as small as possible. For the voltmeter, we
prefer to make the current flowing through it smaller since the other way would change
the quantity desired to be measured (in this case voltage). For this, in accordance with
𝑣
the relation 𝑖 = 𝑅 the internal resistance of the voltmeter is high. On the
contrary, for the ammeter, in accordance with the relation 𝑣 = 𝑖. 𝑅 the internal
resistance is low for the purpose of decreasing the voltage value among the device. It is
for these reasons that the internal resistances related to the current inputs are very low
and the internal resistances related to the voltage inputs are very high in a multimeter.
We will use multimeters called ’digital’ An image of a digital multimeter like we will use
is given in Figure 2.1, which has its measuring leads and selector arranged to measure
different electrical signals. The “ohm meter” is just the multimeter wired up to measure
resistance in ohms. A short circuit is usually zero ohms, but could read up to 2 ohms
due to resistance in the measuring leads. An open circuit is usually hundreds or
thousands of millions of ohms. This is usually displayed as “1.” followed by blank digits
or “OL”, which stands for overload.
Figure 2.1. Multimeter
You can download the datasheet for multimeter from the link below;
http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5991-1983EN.pdf?id=2318052
Prototyping board
The small holes in the board allow electrical connection to wires and component leads.
Some of these holes are connected together, so use patch leads to connect between
desired “nodes”. For convention and ease of interpretation the paired rows at the top
and bottom of the board are used for power rails and ground. Note that they may not
be continuous across all protoboards .
Note that the coloured posts around the protoboard are not connected to it until YOU
join them with patch wires. If you look at the picture below, the top horizontal holes are
highlighted with different colours. All the pink holes are joined together in groups of 25,
under the board, as are the green ones, but the green and pink holes aren’t joined
unless YOU join them with wires. The purple vertical holes are joined in groups of 5 but
they are not connected to their neighbouring columns, or the horizontal rows until YOU
join them.
Figure 2.2. Detail of white proto board
The pictures here show see-through views of various protoboards. The top picture
shows horizontal connections all the way across the board. SOME BOARDS HAVE A
BREAK IN THE MIDDLE, so beware.
Power supply
You can download the datasheet from the link below;
http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/59689726EN.pdf?id=1000070547:epsg:dow
Figure 2.3. Laboratory power supply
In Figure 2.3, you can see controls for current and voltage.
Output Ratings
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Output 1: 0 to 6 V, 0 to 5 A
Output 2: 0 to +25 V, 0 to 1 A
Output 3: 0 to -25 V, 0 to 1 A
Programming Accuracy at 25°C ±5°C
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Voltage: 0.05% + 20 mV, 0.05% + 20 mV, 0.1% + 5 mV
+ Current: 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.2% + 10 mA
Ripple & Noise (20 Hz to 20 MHz)
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

Normal Mode Voltage: <350 µVrms/ 2 mV p-p, <350 µV rms/2 mV p-p, <350 µV
rms/2 mV p-p
Normal-mode current: <500 µA rms, <500 µA rms, <2 mA rms
Common-mode current: <1.5 µA rms, <1.5 µA rms, <1.5 µA rms
Readback Accuracy at 25°C ±5°C


Voltage: 0.05% + 10 mV, 0.05% + 10 mV, 0.1% + 5 mV
Current: 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.2% + 10 mA
1. Meter and adjust selection keys Select the output voltage and current of any one
supply (+6V, +25V, or -25V output) to be monitored on the display and allow knob
adjustment of that supply.
2. Tracking enable / disable key Enables / disables the track mode of ±25V
supplies.
3. Display limit key Shows the voltage and current limit values on the display and
allows knob adjustment for setting limit values.
4. Recall operating state key Recalls a previously stored operating state from
location “1”, “2”, or “3”.
5. Store operating state / Local key1 Stores an operating state in location “1”, “2”,
or “3” / or returns the power supply to local mode from remote interface mode.
6. Error / Calibrate key2 Displays error codes generated during operations, self-test
and calibration / or enables calibration mode (the power supply must be unsecured
before performing calibration).
7. I/O Configuration / Secure key3 Configures the power supply for remote
interfaces / or secure and unsecure the power supply for calibration.
8. Output On/Off key Enables or disables all three power supply outputs. This key
toggles between two states.
9. Control knob Increases or decreases the value of the blinking digit by turning
clockwise or counter clockwise.
10. Resolution selection keys Move the flashing digit to the right or left.
11. Voltage/current adjust selection key Selects the knob function to voltage
control or current control.
Function Generator
The waveform generators offer the common signals and features you expect, such as
modulation, sweep, and burst.
Unique features of the waveform generators

Full-bandwidth pulse to 20 or 30 MHz
Set leading and trailing edge times independently
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Dual channel coupling, frequency and amplitude, equal and inverted
Set start phase for each channel, set phase shift between channels

Sum two signals together, frequency and amplitude independent
2-tone, square-sine, noise on pulse
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Create up to 1 million samples standard, 16 million optional
Connect arbs together, create up to 512 sequences

Lowest voltage range at 1 mVpp, a 10x improvement
Set high and low voltage limits to prevent overload on DUT

Provides standard PRBS patterns, PN7 … PN23
Select PN type, set bit rate, set edge time
You can download the datasheet for function generator from the link below;
http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5991-0692EN.pdf?id=2202606
Oscilloscope
Figure 2.5. Oscilloscope
You can download the datasheet from the link below;
http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5990-6618EN.pdf?id=2002854
Vertical and horizontal amplifiers
If the quantities intended to be measured by the oscilloscope are very low, only a very
small image can be seen on the screen. For the signal to be measured to be seen on the
screen in an appropriate size, the signal is amplified first, and then it is applied to the
plaques. Thus, signals with low amplitudes can also be measured, in other words, the
sensitivity or the resolution of the oscilloscope is increased.
In an oscilloscope, the amplifying factors of the vertical and horizontal plaques can be
adjusted with the switches VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV respectively. To make no mistake
on the voltage and time measurements, the switches related to them should be in
calibration position.
Horizontal sweep circuit
An important part of the oscilloscope is the horizontal sweep circuit. This part is an
oscillator which generates a “saw tooth” signal as a function of time. When this signal is
applied to the horizontal diverting plaques, and if there is no signal applied to the
vertical plaques, the spot on the screen appears as a straight horizontal line (the time
axis) in the middle. When there is a signal which is a function of time applied to the
vertical plaques and if there is no signal applied to the horizontal plaques, a vertical line
appears on the screen. When the saw tooth signal is applied to the horizontal plaques
and a periodic signal, like a sinusoidal, triangle or square shaped signal, is applied to the
vertical plaques the signal applied to the vertical
plaques appears on the screen. When the signals applied both to the horizontal and
vertical plaques are synchronized, the image seen on the screen appears as if it is
stationery. Otherwise the image on the screen appears sliding towards left or right
constantly.
v(t)
sweep
return
t
Figure 2.6 Horizontal sweep signal
The voltage signal generated by the horizontal sweep circuit changes with time in a
period as seen on Figure 1.5.
Agilent VEE
The information about simulation program which will be used in this laboratory class can
be downloaded from the link below;
http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/E2120-90011.pdf
Snapshots of implementing ‘for’ loop with Agilent VEE
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