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1. INTRODUCTION TO ANALOG ELECTRONICS LABORATORY EXPLANATION ABOUT THE LABORATORY Students laboratory grades will be determined according to the 7 laboratory works and the reports those must be done in term. Each of the students has 8 experiments and students have to do all experiments. If students have valid excuse not to participate a laboratory experiment they have to give their medical report etc. (for medical issues) to laboratory coordinator or have to contact with laboratory coordinator. Each of the students will prepare a report for each experiment. Student’s name, surname, number, group number of experiment, date of experiment, experiment name and number, the research assistant’s name and surname should be written by each student to the report cover completely. Reports will be returned to the experiment coordinator till the end of experiment . After this time, the reports will not be accepted. Experiment works The laboratory evaluation of the students is done according to the preliminary work, construction of the experiment and measurement evaluation of experimental results. Preliminary work Each of the students is tested before the start of the experiment by research assitants. The quiz will consist of 4 multiple choice and 1 classic question. Students have to answer at least 2 multiple choice questions to enter the experiment. Those expectations are expected from students: Theoretical knowledge of the experiment that should be gotten from experimental sheet and other sources (lecture notes, books etc.). Experimental sheets can be downloaded from internet page. The theoritical information about experiment is not limited to study only experimental sheet, students have to research other sources to get enough knowledge. Students should know the purpose of the experiment. They should know how the experiment can be done and which measuring elements can be used. They should also get measuring elements catalog information. Construction of the experiment All of the students in each group should participate in the experiment. The following are considered to evaluate the experiment. Approach to the problem The accuracy of the results obtained The success of the questioning and interpreting the results (detect unrealistic results and have an idea about the causes) The use of tools (experiment material) The ability to deal with emerging challenges Efficient use of time The attention given to the experiment Each of the students in group is evaluated separately for these matters. The evaluation of the experimental results After the experiments, the results are perused. The following should be considered: Interpretation of the experimental results (the meanings and results of the obtained data) Comparison of theoretical and experimental results. LABORATORY SCHEDULE: INTRO EXP-1 EXP-2 EXP-3 EXP-4 EXP-5 EXP-6 EXP-7 PROJECT MAKE-UP FINALS Introduction to Laboratory Equipments and Agilent VEE Experimenting with Agilent VEE, Measuring MOSFET Characteristics Single Stage BJT Amplifiers Frequency Response Single Tuned Amplifiers Single Stage MOSFET Amplifiers and MOSFET Current Mirror Differential and Operational Amplifiers Audio Power Amplifiers INTRODUCTION TO ANALOG ELECTRONIC Although digital signal processing is the most common form of processing signals, analog signal processing cannot be completely avoided since the real world is analog in nature. 1. A sensor converts the real-world signal into an analog electrical signal. This analog signal is often weak and noisy. 2. Amplifiers are needed to strengthen the signal. Analog filtering may be necessary to remove noise from the signal. This “front end” processing improves the signal- to-noise ratio. Three of the most important building blocks used in this stage are (a) Operational Amplifiers, (b) Analog Multipliers (c) Analog Comparators. 3. An analog-to-digital converter transforms the analog signal into a stream of 0s and 1s. Amplifier Temperature Pressure Position Speed Flow Humidity Sound Light A/D converter Power management Logic Embedded processing Communication Amplifier D/A converter Figure 1. Signal chain of electronic system The digital data is processed by a CPU, such as a DSP, a microprocessor, or a microcontroller. The choice of the processor depends on how intensive the computation is. A DSP may be necessary when real-time signal processing is needed and the computations are complex. Microprocessors and microcontrollers may suffice in other applications. Digital-to-analog conversion (DAC) is necessary to convert the stream of 0s and 1s back into analog form. The output of the DAC has to be amplified before the analog signal can drive an external actuator. A Power Management block is needed to provide power to the various blocks. In modern-day VLSI chips, power dissipation is a major consideration so that we can keep the power density under control. Since the source of power can be a battery, it is important to ensure long battery life through techniques such as clock gating, power gating, etc. The Power Management block is responsible for these functions. It is evident that analog circuits play a crucial role in the implementation of an electronic system The basic quantities in an electrical circuit are the voltage and current values among each circuit element (branch). To measure these quantities, we use devices which are actually other electrical circuits themselves. In other words, if our desire is to measure a current value on an electrical circuit, we need to make that specific current flow through another circuit (the measuring instrument) which is capable of telling us the current value flowing through itself. This means we need to connect the measuring instrument in “series” with the circuit. On the other hand, if our desire is to measure a voltage value on an electrical circuit, we need to make that specific voltage applied to another circuit (the measuring instrument) which is capable of telling us the voltage value among itself. This, in turn, means we need to connect the measuring instrument in “parallel” with the circuit. These measuring instruments which will be presented below are called “multimeter” and “oscilloscope”. Multimeter is a measuring device which operates as an ammeter or voltmeter with respect to the position of the switch on it. It can also measure the resistance values of circuit values (That is why it is sometimes called A(mpere)V(olt)O(hm)METER). Oscilloscope on the other hand, measures only voltage quantities; however, it shows a certain voltage value on a circuit as a function of time. Since each measuring device has its own internal resistance, when we try to measure a current (voltage) quantity on a circuit element, this internal resistance is connected to the element in series (parallel), and changes the electrical quantities on the circuit. Owing to this fact generally the aim in the measuring problem is to make the original system, on which the quantities desired to be measured are found, affected by the measuring device as little as possible. We can check the amount of energy siphoned by the measuring device from the actual system to understand this fact. Energy ∞ consumed by an element is given by the expression ∫0 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡. Therefore, if we want the measuring device to siphon as little energy as possible from the circuit, the voltage or current value across it must be as small as possible. For the voltmeter, we prefer to make the current flowing through it smaller since the other way would change the quantity desired to be measured (in this case voltage). For this, in accordance with 𝑣 the relation 𝑖 = 𝑅 the internal resistance of the voltmeter is high. On the contrary, for the ammeter, in accordance with the relation 𝑣 = 𝑖. 𝑅 the internal resistance is low for the purpose of decreasing the voltage value among the device. It is for these reasons that the internal resistances related to the current inputs are very low and the internal resistances related to the voltage inputs are very high in a multimeter. We will use multimeters called ’digital’ An image of a digital multimeter like we will use is given in Figure 2.1, which has its measuring leads and selector arranged to measure different electrical signals. The “ohm meter” is just the multimeter wired up to measure resistance in ohms. A short circuit is usually zero ohms, but could read up to 2 ohms due to resistance in the measuring leads. An open circuit is usually hundreds or thousands of millions of ohms. This is usually displayed as “1.” followed by blank digits or “OL”, which stands for overload. Figure 2.1. Multimeter You can download the datasheet for multimeter from the link below; http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5991-1983EN.pdf?id=2318052 Prototyping board The small holes in the board allow electrical connection to wires and component leads. Some of these holes are connected together, so use patch leads to connect between desired “nodes”. For convention and ease of interpretation the paired rows at the top and bottom of the board are used for power rails and ground. Note that they may not be continuous across all protoboards . Note that the coloured posts around the protoboard are not connected to it until YOU join them with patch wires. If you look at the picture below, the top horizontal holes are highlighted with different colours. All the pink holes are joined together in groups of 25, under the board, as are the green ones, but the green and pink holes aren’t joined unless YOU join them with wires. The purple vertical holes are joined in groups of 5 but they are not connected to their neighbouring columns, or the horizontal rows until YOU join them. Figure 2.2. Detail of white proto board The pictures here show see-through views of various protoboards. The top picture shows horizontal connections all the way across the board. SOME BOARDS HAVE A BREAK IN THE MIDDLE, so beware. Power supply You can download the datasheet from the link below; http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/59689726EN.pdf?id=1000070547:epsg:dow Figure 2.3. Laboratory power supply In Figure 2.3, you can see controls for current and voltage. Output Ratings Output 1: 0 to 6 V, 0 to 5 A Output 2: 0 to +25 V, 0 to 1 A Output 3: 0 to -25 V, 0 to 1 A Programming Accuracy at 25°C ±5°C Voltage: 0.05% + 20 mV, 0.05% + 20 mV, 0.1% + 5 mV + Current: 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.2% + 10 mA Ripple & Noise (20 Hz to 20 MHz) Normal Mode Voltage: <350 µVrms/ 2 mV p-p, <350 µV rms/2 mV p-p, <350 µV rms/2 mV p-p Normal-mode current: <500 µA rms, <500 µA rms, <2 mA rms Common-mode current: <1.5 µA rms, <1.5 µA rms, <1.5 µA rms Readback Accuracy at 25°C ±5°C Voltage: 0.05% + 10 mV, 0.05% + 10 mV, 0.1% + 5 mV Current: 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.15% + 4 mA, 0.2% + 10 mA 1. Meter and adjust selection keys Select the output voltage and current of any one supply (+6V, +25V, or -25V output) to be monitored on the display and allow knob adjustment of that supply. 2. Tracking enable / disable key Enables / disables the track mode of ±25V supplies. 3. Display limit key Shows the voltage and current limit values on the display and allows knob adjustment for setting limit values. 4. Recall operating state key Recalls a previously stored operating state from location “1”, “2”, or “3”. 5. Store operating state / Local key1 Stores an operating state in location “1”, “2”, or “3” / or returns the power supply to local mode from remote interface mode. 6. Error / Calibrate key2 Displays error codes generated during operations, self-test and calibration / or enables calibration mode (the power supply must be unsecured before performing calibration). 7. I/O Configuration / Secure key3 Configures the power supply for remote interfaces / or secure and unsecure the power supply for calibration. 8. Output On/Off key Enables or disables all three power supply outputs. This key toggles between two states. 9. Control knob Increases or decreases the value of the blinking digit by turning clockwise or counter clockwise. 10. Resolution selection keys Move the flashing digit to the right or left. 11. Voltage/current adjust selection key Selects the knob function to voltage control or current control. Function Generator The waveform generators offer the common signals and features you expect, such as modulation, sweep, and burst. Unique features of the waveform generators Full-bandwidth pulse to 20 or 30 MHz Set leading and trailing edge times independently Dual channel coupling, frequency and amplitude, equal and inverted Set start phase for each channel, set phase shift between channels Sum two signals together, frequency and amplitude independent 2-tone, square-sine, noise on pulse Create up to 1 million samples standard, 16 million optional Connect arbs together, create up to 512 sequences Lowest voltage range at 1 mVpp, a 10x improvement Set high and low voltage limits to prevent overload on DUT Provides standard PRBS patterns, PN7 … PN23 Select PN type, set bit rate, set edge time You can download the datasheet for function generator from the link below; http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5991-0692EN.pdf?id=2202606 Oscilloscope Figure 2.5. Oscilloscope You can download the datasheet from the link below; http://literature.cdn.keysight.com/litweb/pdf/5990-6618EN.pdf?id=2002854 Vertical and horizontal amplifiers If the quantities intended to be measured by the oscilloscope are very low, only a very small image can be seen on the screen. For the signal to be measured to be seen on the screen in an appropriate size, the signal is amplified first, and then it is applied to the plaques. Thus, signals with low amplitudes can also be measured, in other words, the sensitivity or the resolution of the oscilloscope is increased. In an oscilloscope, the amplifying factors of the vertical and horizontal plaques can be adjusted with the switches VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV respectively. To make no mistake on the voltage and time measurements, the switches related to them should be in calibration position. Horizontal sweep circuit An important part of the oscilloscope is the horizontal sweep circuit. This part is an oscillator which generates a “saw tooth” signal as a function of time. When this signal is applied to the horizontal diverting plaques, and if there is no signal applied to the vertical plaques, the spot on the screen appears as a straight horizontal line (the time axis) in the middle. When there is a signal which is a function of time applied to the vertical plaques and if there is no signal applied to the horizontal plaques, a vertical line appears on the screen. When the saw tooth signal is applied to the horizontal plaques and a periodic signal, like a sinusoidal, triangle or square shaped signal, is applied to the vertical plaques the signal applied to the vertical plaques appears on the screen. When the signals applied both to the horizontal and vertical plaques are synchronized, the image seen on the screen appears as if it is stationery. Otherwise the image on the screen appears sliding towards left or right constantly. v(t) sweep return t Figure 2.6 Horizontal sweep signal The voltage signal generated by the horizontal sweep circuit changes with time in a period as seen on Figure 1.5. Agilent VEE The information about simulation program which will be used in this laboratory class can be downloaded from the link below; http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/E2120-90011.pdf Snapshots of implementing ‘for’ loop with Agilent VEE Step 1. Step 2. Step 3. Step 4. Step 5. Step 6. Step 7. Step 8. Step 9. Step 10. Step 11. Step 12 Step 13 Step 14 Step 15 Step 16 Step 17 Step 18 Step 19 Step 20 Step 21 Step 22