Download chapter03 - WordPress.com

Learning and Memory
Chapter 3
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-1
Chapter Objectives
• Understand why it is important to know how consumers learn about
products and services.
• Understand that conditioning results in learning.
• Understand that learned associations with brands generalize to other
products, and know why this is important to marketers.
• Understand that there is a difference between classical and
instrumental conditioning, and that both processes help consumers to
learn about products.
• Understand that we can learn about products by observing others’
behaviour.
• Understand how the memory process works.
• Understand that marketers use various measures to assess our
memories about brands, products, and ads.
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-2
The Learning Process
Learning
Refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
is caused by experience.
• Learning can take place either
• vicariously
• incidentally
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-3
Behavioural Learning Theories
Behavioural Learning Theories
Assume that learning takes place as the result of
responses to external events, as opposed to internal
thought processes.
Process of Behavioural Learning:
• “Black box”
• Observable behaviour
• Classical conditioning and instrumental
conditioning
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-4
Types of Behavioural Learning
Theories
Classical Conditioning
A stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another
stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.
FIGURE 3 - 1
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-5
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov (Russian Physiologist)
- introduced the concept of classical conditioning
• Pavlov introduced the concepts of:
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned responses (CR)
• Classic Conditioning focuses on visual and
olfactory cues that induce physiological responses
related to consumer needs.
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-6
Associative Learning
Associative Learning
Consumers learn associations between stimuli in a rather
simple fashion without more complex processes.
• Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning
• Associative learning can occur for more complex
reactions to stimuli as well
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-7
Associative Learning: Repetition
• Repetition increases
learning
• More exposure results
in greater brand
awareness
• Less exposure can
• When exposure
decreases extinction
results
• But….too much exposure
leads to advertising wear
out
result in decay
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-8
Associative Learning: Repetition
• most effective repetition strategy seems to be a combination of
spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that are more
and less involving, (TV advertising and print media)
• associative learning will not occur or will take longer if the paired
stimuli are only occasionally presented with one another
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3-9
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Generalization
•
•
•
•
•
Tendency for stimuli similar to a conditioned
stimulus (keys jangling resemble bell) to evoke
similar, unconditioned responses.
Family branding
Product line extensions
Licensing
Look-alike packaging
Stimulus discrimination: Only buy the brand names
Think about it: Do you buy a less-expensive product because it looks like
the brand name item?
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 10
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by a
UCS.
• reactions are thus weakened and will soon disappear
Masked Branding
Deliberately hides a product’s true origin.
• reactions are thus weakened and will soon disappear
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 11
Marketing Applications
of Conditioning
Brand Equity
A brand has strong positive associations in a consumer’s
memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.
Repetition
- scheduling more than three exposures is a waste?
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 12
Marketing Applications
of Conditioning
• Transferred
•
•
•
•
meaning can
be conditioned
by fairly simple
associations
Goal is to create
brand equity
Advertising
wear-out (change
media/message)
Repetition
(Telus)
Product
Associations
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 13
Conditioning Product Association
• Advertisements often pair a product with a positive
stimulus to create a desirable association
• Importantly, the order in which the conditioned stimulus
and the unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect
the likelihood that learning will occur
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 14
Applications of
Stimulus Generalization
• The process of stimulus generalization is often central to
branding and packaging decisions that attempt to
capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an
existing brand or company name.
• Strategies based on stimulus generalization include the
following:
• Family branding
• Product-line extensions
• Licensing
• Look-alike
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 15
Instrumental conditioning
Instrumental conditioning (AKA operant conditioning)
The individual learns to perform behaviours that produce
positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative
outcomes.
Under instrumental conditioning,
people perform more complex
behaviours and associate
these behaviours with:
•
•
•
•
shaping
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 16
Four Types of Learning Outcomes
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 17
Four Types of Learning Schedules
Reinforcement schedules include…
•
•
•
•
Fixed-ratio - frequent flyer programs
Variable-ratio - slot machines
Fixed-interval - seasonal sales
Variable-interval - secret shoppers
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 18
Application of Instrumental
Conditioning Principles
Frequency Marketing
Reinforces the behaviour of regular purchasers by giving
them prizes with values that increase along with the
amount purchased.
• pioneered by
the airline
industry
• frequent flyer
programs
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 19
Application of Instrumental Conditioning
Principles
Gamification
Involves borrowing from basic principles of game
mechanics to motivate consumers across a broad
spectrum of behaviours.
Marketers can use gamification via:
• Store and brand loyalty
• Social marketing
• Employee performance
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 20
Cognitive Learning Theories:
Observational Learning
Cognitive Learning Theory
Stresses the importance of internal mental processes and
views people as problem solvers who actively use
information from the world around them to master their
environment.
• Internal mental processes
• We watch others and note reinforcements they
receive for behaviours
• Vicarious learning
• Socially desirable models/celebrities who use or do
not use their products
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 21
Observational Learning
Observational learning
People watch the actions of others and note the
reinforcements they receive for their behaviours.
• vicarious learning
• modelling
• violence and children
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 22
Observational Learning
FIGURE 3 - 3
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 23
Role of Memory in Learning
Memory
Acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will
be available when needed
• Information-processing approach
• Mind = computer and data = input/output
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 24
Encoding
• We encode information to help us retain it later
• Sensory meaning - colours, shapes
• Semantic meaning - symbolic associations
• Personal relevance
• Episodic/flashbulb memories
• Product information conveyed as a narrative
• Low-involvement products tend to have
descriptive, snappy names
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 25
Memory Systems
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 26
Relationship among
Memory Systems
•
•
•
•
•
Sensory memory
Short-term memory
Chucking
Long-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 27
Storing Information in Memory
Activity Models of Memory
Depending on the nature of the processing task, different
levels of processing occur that activate some aspects of
memory rather than others.
• STM and LTM are separate systems
• The more effort it takes to process information the
more likely it is that information will be placed in longterm memory
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 28
Storing Information in Memory
(Associative Network Models)
• propose that an incoming piece of information is stored
in an associative network
• consumer has organized systems of concepts relating to
brands, stores, manufacturers
• assumes that it is the associations that form in
consumers’ minds that lead to learning about brands and
products
• these storage units, known as knowledge structures,
can be thought of as complex spider webs
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 29
Associative Networks
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 30
Spreading Activation
• A meaning can be activated indirectly
• As one node is activated, other nodes associated
with it also begin to be triggered
• Meaning types of associated nodes:
• Brand-specific
• Ad-specific
• Brand identification
• Product category
• Evaluative reactions
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 31
Levels of Knowledge
• Individual nodes = meaning concepts
• Two (or more) connected nodes = proposition
(complex meaning)
• Two or more propositions = schema
• We more readily encode info that is consistent
•
with an existing schema
Service scripts
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 32
Analogical Learning
• The marketer wants to
inform the consumer
about a product and
does so using an analogy
• Base – the existing
product
• Target – the new product
• Effective because the
consumer can integrate
knowledge about the base
into the schema for the
target product
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 33
Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
• Retrieval is the process of accessing information from longterm memory factors
• Situational factors
• Consumer attention; pioneering brand; descriptive brand
names
• Viewing environment (continuous activity; commercial order
in sequence)
• Post-experience advertising effects
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 34
Retrieval for Purchase Decisions
• Appropriate factors/cues for retrieval
• State-dependent retrieval/mood congruence effect
• Familiarity
• Salience and Recall effect (mystery ads)
• Visual memory versus verbal memory
• Think about it: Are your vivid memories visual or
verbal? Do you have flashback memories?
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 35
Factors Influencing Forgetting
•
•
•
•
Decay
Interference
Retroactive versus proactive
Part-list cueing effect
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 36
Products as Memory Makers
• Furniture, visual art and photos call forth memories
of the past
•
•
•
•
•
Autobiographical memories
Mnemonic qualities
Power of nostalgia
Retro brands
Nostalgia Index
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 37
Measuring Memory
for Marketing Stimuli
• Recognition vs. recall
• The Starch Test
• Problems with memory measures
• Response biases
• Memory lapses
• Memory or facts vs. feelings
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 38
Discussion
• In his 2005 book Blink: The Power of Thinking
Without Thinking, author Malcolm Gladwell argues
that hallowed marketing research techniques like
focus groups aren’t effective because we usually
react to products quickly and without much
conscious thought so it’s better just to solicit
consumers’ first impressions rather than getting
them to think at length about why they buy.
• Think about it: What’s your position on this
issue?
Copyright © 2017 Pearson Canada Inc.
3 - 39