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motivation
concepts
motivation
to the process that influences the direction
,persistence, and vigor of goal-directed
behavior, the word is derived from the Latin
term meaning (to move) and psychologists
study the factors that move the people toward
their goals ,whether getting food ,mating,
success, other career achievement, or other
non personal goal. Evolutionary psychologists
proposed that many psychological motives
have evolutionary expression through genes
also do other environmental factors play a part
‫ا‬
;Homeostasis and drive theory
Maintaining homeostasis requires a sensory mechanism
for detecting changes in the internal environment, a
response system that can restore equilibrium and
control center that receive information from the sensors
and activates the response system, the control center
act like a thermostat in cooling units. The drive is the
state of internal tension that motivate an organism to
behave in ways that reduce this tension, drives such as
hunger and thirst arise from tissue deficits like food and
water and provide a source of energy that pushes an
organism into action, homeostatic models are applied to
many aspects of motivation such as regulation of
.hunger, thirst, body temperature ,weight and sleep
Psychodynamic and humanistic
;theory
The psychodynamic and humanistic
approach view motivation within broad
context of personality development and
functioning while Freud psychoanalytic
theory revealed the hidden part of
motivation especially sexual and
aggressive drives as they are usually
disguised ,in addition Freud stated that
the individuals have needs for self.esteem and relatedness to other people
;Hunger and weight regulation
Eating and digestion supply the
body with the fuel it need to
function and survive, metabolism
is the body's rate of energy
utilization and about two third of
the energy used for the basal
metabolism ,several mechanisms
attempt to keep the body in energy
homeostasis by regulating food
.intake
hunger
Feeling hungry or full does not totally depends
on the levels of energy in the body as people
think ,it is related to many other factors ,these
factors will stimulate the hunger and satiety
centers in the brain through what is called
short term signals and long term signals.
Usually people loose or gain weight because of
disturbance in homeostatic processes but
there is a kind of set up point where the body
tends to keep the same weight even after
.gaining weight so as to keep the new weight
hunger
Stomach contraction when it is empty is associated with
the subjective feeling of hunger (hunger pain )which
motivate the person to eat ,also fluctuation in the
glucose levels in the body with the ingestion of food or
fasting ,during eating satiety signals are sent to the
brain by the stretching the walls of the stomach and
intestine due to distention by food so the person will
feel filled and stop eating, in addition to that, intestinal
walls secret several hormones called peptides that help
terminate the meals ,CCK(cholecystokinin) is one of the
important peptides ,experiments on animals and human
revealed that after injecting CCK into the blood stream
will act in reducing the meal or terminating it .Also fat
cells(leptin) play a role in food regulation by sending
signals from the blood stream to the brain through
neural pathways to decrease appetite and increase
energy expenditure, but it does not affect the feelings of
.satiety
;Psychological aspects of hunger
Eating is positively reinforced by the good taste of food and
negatively reinforced by huger reduction ,people have the
expectation that eating will be pleasurable and this becomes
an important motivator to seek and consume food, attitudes
and habits motivate people to eat even when they are not
hungry, for example social pressure of slimness as a sign of
beauty and good health motivate people specially women to
catch the cultural expectations of the ideal weight ,this
phenomenon has been reinforced during the recent decades
as the ideal body image has been changed to the slim figure
rather than the full-bodied woman's figure which was
esteemed before, this struggle for thinness has it draw back in
western societies as excessive dieting and weight reduction
methods increases the prevalence of Anorexia nervosa and
Bulimia Nervosa which are eating disorders characterized by
distorted body image and relentless efforts to reduce weight
,and obese people especially women, tend to have lower self–
. esteem
Environmental and cultural
;factors
Food availability is the most obvious environmental motivator
for eating in poor countries where food is scare, either because
of famine or war and armed conflicts or beyond the reach of the
most of the people, obesity is a rare observation in contrast to
rich countries with low-cost high calories food is available,
obesity is a common observation. The smell and sight of food is
associated with its taste by the mechanism of classical
conditioning again cultural values interfere with acceptance and
enjoying certain type of food by some people in certain culture
and to be refused and considered disgusting by people living in
.different culture
Other environmental stimuli affect food intake, people who eat
together tend to eat more amounts than people who eat
alone ,may be because meals take longer time and get more
pleasure in associating eating with social connection , in
general people all over the world tend to choose familiar food
.most of their times rather than going to unfamiliar food
;Sexual behavior and motivation
psychological factors can not only trigger sexual arousal ,it can,
also inhibit it ,the aroused person can be turned off by any
adverse psychological stimulus coming from the partner, one of
three women reported that they practice intercourse without real
interest in sex, so the term sexual dysfunction refers to chronic,
impaired sexual functioning that cause psychological distress of
the person, it may results from injury, disease ,medical disorder or
drug effect, the most common type is the erectile failure in men
and about 10% and lack of vaginal lubrication in women about 20%
. Cultural and environmental factors also effect the motivation,
satisfaction and performance in sexual activity ,religions and
cultural norms influence sexual behavior of people to a great
deal ,in our Arab Muslim cultures premarital and extra marital sex
is prohibited by the religious taboo so does any other public
stimulus that triggers sexual desire in contrast to western cultures
where adolescents start sexual practice at 16 as the legal age and
sexual abstinence and virginity is considered as odd and rare.
Many sexual stimulation come from a world wide industry of
pornography like magazines, movies, nude dance clubs which
, brings income in billions
Biological factors
Sex hormones in men and women like
Androgen and Testosterone are
necessary for stimulation and
maintaining sexual desire, but there is
an important role for psychological
factors to play which is the effect on
sexual arousal ,sexual arousal starts by
sexual fantasies and can lead to orgasm
after masturbation ,most men and
women fantasize at least occasionally
during sexual intercourse
Religious and cultura factors
Muslim cultures premarital and extra marital sex is
prohibited by the religious taboo so does any other
public stimulus that triggers sexual desire in contrast to
western cultures where adolescents start sexual
practice at 16 as the legal age and sexual abstinence
and virginity is considered as odd and rare. Many sexual
stimulation come from a world wide industry of
pornography like magazines, movies, nude dance clubs
which brings income in billions, many evidences
showed that sexually explicit materials increase men's
aggression toward women especially violent materials
as it was associated with increase tendency to rape as it
view that sex is non personal issue and its more
.pleasurable if it is linked with violence
;Motivation for affiliation
Motivation for affiliation
identity and external support at times of stress .Psychologists
revealed four causes that motivate people to affiliate to
;others
to obtain positive stimulation-1
to receive emotional support-2
to gain attention-3
to permit social comparison-4
Social comparison involves comparing the beliefs, feelings
and behavior with those of other people which help the person
to determine compatibility with others social norms. People
differ in how much they need to affiliate, people who have high
sense of community (the feeling of being part of a larger
collective) show high degree of need to affiliate, at the same
time many factors affect tendency to affiliate among which at
time of emergencies like disasters as people tend to affiliate to
strangers who share the same circumstances
Factors in affiliation
proximity and exposure; every relationship-1
start with meeting and exposure, proximity
increase the chance of frequent encounters
.like repeated exposure to any stimulus
similarity; like the proverb says; birds of a -2
feather flock together. Similarity in
appearance, race, religion, beliefs seems to
attract people to their alike, for psychological
attributes, similarity of attitudes usually seems
the strongest factor, on the other hand there is
the phenomena of opposite attraction where
people of extremely different characters may
get attracted to each others by friendships
.,social contact or even marriage
Factors in affiliation
physical attraction; men are attracted to nice looking-3
women more than women to be attracted to good
looking men but in general people feel more interested
in physical beauty which may be unfair discrimination to
other who lack beauty. Although males and females are
sometimes referred to as members of opposite sexes,
there are many similarities in their sexual responses,
men and women respond in similar fashion to erotic
stimuli and engage in similar kinds of erotic fantasies.
The sexual behavior of female mammals with estrous
cycles depends on estradiol and progesterone ,but
these hormones have only a minor effect on women's
sexual behavior, their sexual desire like that of men is
much more dependent on androgens. Testosterone has
two major effects on male sexual behavior;
. organizational and activation
;Motivation for achievements
positively oriented motive for success and the second is the
negatively oriented motive to avoid failure. People with strong
need for achievement ,particularly those who score high on
motivation for success and low on fear of failure ,are
ambitious and persist longer after encountering difficulty than
do people with low need for achievement, high need achievers
tend to perform better in challenging situations rather than
relaxed situations ,generally they are most likely to strive hard
;for success when
they perceive themselves as personally responsible for the-1
outcome
they feel some risk if not succeeding-2
there is an opportunity to receive performance feedback-3
It is the individual perception to the task uncertainty that
counts the most, in addition to personality, family influence
play a major role as
Factors affecting motivation for
achievement
in addition to personality, family influence play a major role as
supporting and encouraging parents reward achievement and
do not punish failure during childhood while parents who
punish failure seem to produce adults who fear failure and do
not seek for high achievements. Cultural factors also effect the
perception of the high achievers, the relation between cultural
values and the achievement motivation is suggested by the
correspondence between the amount of achievement imagery
.and the future accomplishments
Motivation in the work place is important drive for employees
to strive for a better position or to work harder to meet the
.demands of their leaders
Cultural factors influence work motivation according to the
general work atmosphere like in Japan ,there is a traditional
pressure on employees to develop skills and increase
,productivity under rules of incentives and rewards
Factors affecting motivation for
achievement
job satisfaction is commonly related to job
productivity but it is not always related a
worker can still be keen and productive
despite his/her dissatisfaction with job,
psychologists who are interested in enriching
work motivation designed many strategies for
job enhancement but basically it is about two
items the first is the autonomy ;where the
workers have some freedom to determine work
procedures and schedules, second is the job
feed back that provides clear feedback about
.performance effectiveness