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The Buddha's Four Noble Truths:
A Logical Basis for Philosophy
The Buddha Shakyamuni was born in the 6th century BCE in the area presently
known as Nepal. During his 80 year lifetime, he systematically developed a pragmatic,
empirically based philosophy which he claimed would lead its followers towards an
enlightened existence. Buddhism is commonly called a religion; however, it differs from
the usual definition of a religion in that it has no deities, does not promote worship of
demigods, and is based on logical reasoning and observation rather than spiritual faith.
At the heart of Buddhist philosophy is the Buddha's enumeration of Four Noble Truths:
Dukkha (suffering), Samudaya (origin of suffering), Nirodha (cessation of suffering), and
Magga (path to cessation of suffering). The Buddha's Four Noble Truths are based on
archetypal traits that were elucidated through careful empirical observance and intensive
introspection. These Four Noble Truths form a logically coherent set of axioms upon
which the whole of Buddhism is based, and provide a solid foundation for a philosophy
which is applicable several millennia after its formulation.{1}
"What we call a 'being,' or an 'individual,' or 'I,' according to Buddhist philosophy, is only
a combination of ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies...."
- Walpola Rahula{2}
In order to fully understand the Four Noble Truths, it is necessary to investigate
the Buddhist view of the individual and its makeup. In some respects, the manner in
which Buddhism deals with the mind/body problem is much more advanced than most
religious views, and closer to science's understanding of the mind and body. Rather than
postulating the existence of an eternal soul with no physical manifestation, the Buddha
taught that the person is really a collection of five skandhas or aggregates. These include
rupa (matter), vedana (sensations), sanna (perceptions), samkhara (mental formations),
and vijnana (consciousness). The aggregate of matter encompasses all tangible aspects of
the world. The aggregate of sensations is akin to the process of sensory input; e.g., the
activation of retinal cells in the eye. Vedana does not include the process of perception,
however; the act of perceiving the senses, i.e., recognition of external sensations, is
within the realm of the sanna. Buddha classified mental activities (samkhara), i.e., ideas
and thoughts, as being disparate from the state of mental consciousness (vijnana).
Consciousness, in the Buddhist view, is the awareness of the sensations and perceptions
that the person experiences, while the mental formations are the volitions, whims,
thoughts, and ideas that a person has. The breakdown of the individual into the skandhas
is strikingly similar to the classifications used in the modern field of psychology. Matter,
sensation, perception, cognition, and consciousness are common nomenclature in both
paradigms.
"There is this Noble Truth of suffering: Birth is suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is
suffering, death is suffering, sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are
suffering, association with the loathed is suffering, dissociation from the loved is
suffering, not to get what one wants is suffering...."
- Shakyamuni Buddha{3}
The First Noble Truth, the Truth of Dukkha, is based on Buddha's observation
that all people in the world are in a state of dukkha. Dukkha, which translates literally as
'suffering' from the Pali, does not mean pain or distress as the word 'suffer' usually
implies. Instead it is used to convey the idea that the very act of living is one of
imperfection and impermanence, and hence is a situation that must be remedied in order
to achieve true happiness. There are three types of dukkha: dukkha-dukkha (suffering in
the conventional sense), viparinama-dukkha (suffering caused by the ephemeral nature of
happiness in life), and samkhara-dukkha (suffering caused by existence itself). Suffering
in the conventional sense of the word, such as that caused by pain, disease, and poverty,
is classified as dukkha-dukkha. The Buddha also noted that happiness itself, being a
fleeting emotion, usually resulted in an eventual loss of happiness greater than the initial
happiness. This loss of happiness is caused by the removal of whatever situation or
object precipitated the happiness in the first place; therefore the transitory nature of life
itself is the root of dukkha, in this case called viparinama. This leads to the conclusion
that suffering is an inherent trait of existence itself, and is classified as samkhara. And
thus the question is raised that if suffering is inherent in life itself, what is the cause (and
the remedy) for this undesirable state of affairs?
"There is this noble truth of the origin of suffering: It is craving, which produces
renewal of being, is accompanied by relish and lust, relishing this and that; in other
words, craving for sensual desires, craving for being, craving for nonbeing."
- Shakyamuni Buddha{4}
While dukkha has a variety of direct causes, Buddhist doctrine teaches that at the
heart of all suffering is a basal craving or thirst called tanhâ. Tanha is defined in the
original texts as "... this thirst which produces re-existence and re-becoming, and which is
bound up with passionate greed, and which finds fresh delight now here and now there
...."{5} There are three sub-divisions of tanha: kama-tanhâ (desire for sensual
pleasures), bhava-tanhâ (desire for existence), and vibhava-tanhâ (desire for nonexistence). These three types of desire have a common effect - they result in the
continuation of suffering and the instantiation of the dukkha. The causal relationship
between the tanha and dukkha is delineated by the related concepts of karma and karmaphala. Karma is the Sanskrit word for 'action' or 'doing' and it refers to the actions of a
person as a result of his or her mental volition. The result of a person's karma is called
karma-phala, commonly colloquialized as the fruits of karma. The basic belief in
Buddhism about the mechanics of karma is that when a person has a craving (tanha) of
any sort, they will try to attain the thing for which they have the craving (karma), and in
doing so will cause the existence of dukkha in their life. This belief is another way of
viewing the old axiom that "what goes around, comes around," a simple observation
about the nature of cause and effect in relation to human actions.
"There is this noble truth of the cessation of suffering: It is the remainderless fading and
ceasing, the giving up, relinquishing, letting go, and rejecting of that same craving."
- Shakyamuni Buddha{6}
The goal of a Buddhist is to eliminate all traces of dukkha from his or her life,
thus becoming Enlightened. A person who has attained Enlightenment, according to the
Buddha, is in a state of Nirvana. Nirvana is commonly defined as Tanhakkhaya, or the
extinction of thirst. It is the end of all earthly suffering and freedom from attachment to
the Five Aggregates.{7} While commonly misconstrued as final annihilation, nirvana is
simply the final liberation from the earthly existence, or as the Buddha put it, "... [it is]
the extinction of desire, the extinction of hatred, the extinction of illusion. This, O
bhikkhus, is called the Absolute [Nirvana]."{8} One who is enlightened is able to realize
the absolute truth of any situation without the illusion of earthly existence interfering.
"There is this noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: It is this Noble
Eightfold Path, that is to say: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration."
- Shakyamuni Buddha{9}
With the goal of Nirvana thus elucidated, the obvious question is "How does one
set about reaching Nirvana?" As with the rest of his philosophy, the Buddha answered
this question through careful empirical observations. In the early days of his life,
Siddhartha lived a life of luxury in which all of the sensual pleasures were given to him.
Finding this an unsatisfactory state of affairs, the Buddha attempted to find happiness in a
life at the opposite extreme. He became a wandering ascetic, practicing self-denial and
abasement for a number of years. After searching for the answer in both hedonism and
puritanism, he realized that the path to Enlightenment must lie somewhere between these
two antipodes. Thus, the Buddha found the Middle Path or the Way leading to the
Cessation of Dukkha, Magga. He declared that eight qualities were required to follow the
path to Nirvana: Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right
Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. The rational
behind this eightfold path of the Magga is simple - a person who follows it will be
endowed with wisdom (right understanding and right thought), compassion (right speech,
right action, and right livelihood), and mental awareness (right mindfulness and right
concentration). These are the qualities which are both necessary and sufficient to attain
final liberation, Enlightenment, and Nirvana.
Thus is laid out the very heart of the Buddhist doctrine. These four aspects of the
Buddha's philosophy are not lofty, abstract constructs which have no empirical basis.
They are, in the most sincere use of the words, 'The Four Noble Truths.'
FOOTNOTES********************************
{1}
The idea of the cycle of death and rebirth, a central tenet to both Buddhist
philosophy and the Hindu religion, will not be brought into this discussion of the Four
Noble Truths. While reincarnation was very important to Buddha's formulation of his
beliefs, it is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for the Four Noble Truths to hold
true. When examined from a purely logical and empirical basis, the Four Noble Truths
are still valid without the introduction of reincarnation.
{2}
Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. Page 25.
{3}
Sherab Chödzin Kohn. The Life of the Buddha. Page 19.
{4}
Sherab Chödzin Kohn. The Life of the Buddha. Page 19.
{5}
Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. Page 29.
{6}
Sherab Chödzin Kohn. The Life of the Buddha. Page 19.
{7}
B. Alan Wallace. Tibetan Buddhism From the Ground Up. Pages 40-41.
{8}
Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught. Page 36.
{9}
Sherab Chödzin Kohn. The Life of the Buddha. Page 19.
Keywords:
buddha four noble truths logical basis philosophy buddha shakyamuni born century area
presently known nepal during year lifetime systematically developed pragmatic
empirically based philosophy which claimed would lead followers towards enlightened
existence buddhism commonly called religion however differs from usual definition
religion that deities does promote worship demigods based logical reasoning observation
rather than spiritual faith heart buddhist philosophy buddha enumeration four noble truths
dukkha suffering samudaya origin suffering nirodha cessation suffering magga path
cessation four noble truths based archetypal traits that were elucidated through careful
empirical observance intensive introspection these form logically coherent axioms upon
which whole buddhism provide solid foundation which applicable several millennia after
formulation what call being individual according buddhist only combination ever
changing physical mental forces energies walpola rahula order fully understand necessary
investigate buddhist view individual makeup some respects manner buddhism deals with
mind body problem much more advanced than most religious views closer science
understanding mind body rather than postulating existence eternal soul with physical
manifestation taught that person really collection five skandhas aggregates these include
rupa matter vedana sensations sanna perceptions samkhara mental formations vijnana
consciousness aggregate matter encompasses tangible aspects world aggregate sensations
akin process sensory input activation retinal cells vedana does include process perception
however perceiving senses recognition external sensations within realm sanna classified
mental activities samkhara ideas thoughts being disparate from state consciousness
vijnana consciousness view awareness perceptions person experiences while formations
volitions whims thoughts ideas person breakdown individual into skandhas strikingly
similar classifications used modern field psychology matter sensation perception
cognition common nomenclature both paradigms there this truth birth aging sickness
death sorrow lamentation pain grief despair association with loathed dissociation from
loved what wants shakyamuni first truth truth dukkha observation people world state
dukkha translates literally pali does mean pain distress word suffer usually implies
instead used convey idea very living imperfection impermanence hence situation must
remedied order achieve true happiness there three types conventional sense viparinama
caused ephemeral nature happiness life samkhara caused existence itself conventional
sense word such caused pain disease poverty classified also noted happiness itself being
fleeting emotion usually resulted eventual loss greater initial this loss removal whatever
situation object precipitated first place therefore transitory nature life itself root this case
called viparinama leads conclusion inherent trait classified thus question raised inherent
life what cause remedy undesirable state affairs there origin craving produces renewal
accompanied relish lust relishing other words craving sensual desires craving nonbeing
shakyamuni while variety direct causes doctrine teaches heart basal thirst called tanh
tanha defined original texts thirst produces becoming bound passionate greed finds fresh
delight here three divisions tanha kama tanh desire sensual pleasures bhava tanh desire
vibhava desire these three types have common effect they result continuation
instantiation causal relationship between tanha delineated related concepts karma karma
phala karma sanskrit word action doing refers actions result volition result phala
commonly colloquialized fruits basic belief about mechanics when sort they will attain
thing they have doing will cause their belief another viewing axiom goes around comes
around simple observation about nature cause effect relation human actions cessation
remainderless fading ceasing giving relinquishing letting rejecting same goal eliminate
traces thus becoming enlightened attained enlightenment according nirvana nirvana
commonly defined tanhakkhaya extinction thirst earthly freedom attachment five
aggregates while misconstrued final annihilation nirvana simply final liberation earthly
extinction extinction hatred illusion bhikkhus absolute enlightened able realize absolute
situation without illusion earthly interfering leading eightfold path right view right
intention right speech action livelihood effort mindfulness concentration goal thus
elucidated obvious question about reaching rest answered question through careful
empirical observations early days siddhartha lived luxury sensual pleasures were given
finding unsatisfactory affairs attempted find opposite extreme became wandering ascetic
practicing self denial abasement number years after searching answer both hedonism
puritanism realized path enlightenment must somewhere between antipodes found middle
leading magga declared eight qualities were required follow understanding thought
speech action livelihood effort mindfulness concentration rational behind eightfold
magga simple follows will endowed wisdom understanding thought compassion speech
livelihood awareness mindfulness concentration qualities both necessary sufficient attain
final liberation enlightenment laid very heart doctrine aspects lofty abstract constructs
have empirical basis most sincere words footnotes idea cycle death rebirth central tenet
hindu religion brought into discussion reincarnation very important formulation beliefs
neither necessary sufficient condition hold true when examined purely logical basis still
valid without introduction reincarnation walpola rahula taught page sherab dzin kohn
page sherab dzin kohn page walpola rahula taught sherab dzin kohn alan wallace tibetan
ground pages
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