Download Optical Properties of Condensed Matters

Optical Properties
of
Condensed Matters
祝 世宁
引言: 光学过程的分类，光学系数，复折射率与复介电常数，光学材料(绝缘晶体，半导
体，玻璃，金属，高分子材料等)，凝聚态物质光学性质的特征(对称性，电子能
带，晶格振动，态密度，局域态和集体激发等)，微观模型
光在凝聚态物质中传播的经典理论: 光在稠密光学介质中的传播，偶极振子模型，色散理
论，光学各向异性:双折射
带间吸收: 带间跃迁, 直接跃迁的跃迁几率，直接带隙半导体的带边吸收，间接带隙半导
体的带边吸收，带边以上的带间吸收，吸收谱的测量，光探测材料与器件
激子:
激子的概念，自由激子，外场中的自由激子，高密度的自由激子，弗仑克尔激子
发光:
固体中光的发射，带间发光，光致发光，电致发光
量子阱与量子点: 量子限制结构，半导体量子阱的结构与制备，电子能级，光的吸收与激
发，量子限制斯塔克效应，光发射，量子阱子的带间跃迁，Bloch振子，量子点
自由电子: Plasma反射率, 自由载流子电导，金属，掺杂半导体，Plasmon
高分子材料: 高分子材料简介，共轭分子的电子态，高分子光谱，芳烃共轭聚合物，有机
光电子学
发光中心: 电子—声子相互作用，色心，离子晶体中的顺磁杂质，固体激光器与放大器，
发光材料
声子: 红外活性声子，极性晶体红外反射与吸收，极化激元，极化子，非弹性光散射，声
子寿命
非线性光学: 非线性极化率张量，光学非线性的物理起源，二阶非线性效应，三阶非线性
效应
光子晶体和光学微腔: 光子能带，光子晶体的构成，光学微腔，腔量子电动力学简介
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Classification of optical processes
• Reflection
refractive index
n() = c / v ()
• Propagation
• Transmission
Snell’s law
absorption
~ resonance
luminescence
~ spontaneous
emission
Optical medium
elastic and
Inelastic
scattering
nonlinear-optics
Optical medium
Propagation
1.2 Optical coefficients
•
Coefficient of reflection or reflectivity (R):
R = reflected power / incident power
•
Transmission or transmissivity (T):
T = transmitted power / incident power
•
Luminescence
R+T=1
•
Refractive index (n):
•
Absorption coefficient ()
 = - d I * d z / I (z);
Beer’s law:
I ( z )  I 0 e z
 is strong function of frequency
The atom jumps to an excited state by absorption of a
Photon, then relaxes to an intermediate state, before reemitting a photon by spontaneous emission as it falls
To the ground state. The photon emitted has a smaller
energy than the absorbed photon. The reduction in the
Photon energy is called the Stokes shift.
•
Scattering
Variation of n of the medium on a length scale
smaller than the  of the light
I ( z )  I 0 exp(  N s z )
N: the number of scattering centres / V;
S: scattering cross-section;
 = N S
T  (1  R1 )e l (1  R2 )  (1  R) 2 e l
Rayleigh scattering :
 s ( ) ~
1
4
1.3 The complex refractive index and dielectric constant
•
Complex refractive index
~  n  i
n
: extinction coefficient
E ( z , t )  E0 e i ( k  z  t )
Where
k
2
n
~   ( n  i ) 

k n
/n
c
c
c
~
E ( z , t )  E0 e i ( n  z / c t )
 E0 e  w / c e i ( n z / c t )
 I  EE *
2     4  
 

c

•
Complex dielectric constant
n  r
~    i
r
1
n~ 2  ~r
2
The relationship between the real and imaginary
parts of two coefficients:
1  n 2   2 ,  2  2n
and
1
1
1
n
(1  (12   22 ) 2 ) 2
2
1
1
1

(1  (12   22 ) 2 ) 2 .
2
~ and ~
n
r are not independent var iable s
For weakly absorbing medium,  is very small,

n  1 ,
 2
2n
The reflectivity (normal incidence) :
~  1 2 ( n  1) 2   2
n
R ~

.
n 1
( n  1) 2   2
In the transparent region of material :
 is very small,  and 2 are negligible, one
may consider only the real parts of n and ;
In the absorption region, one need to know
both the real and imaginary parts of n and .
1.4 Optical materials
1.41 Crystalline insulators and semiconductors
Transparency range, the index
may be taken to be real with no
imaginary component
(approximately constant n=1.77)
R = 0.077, hence T =(1-R)2=0.85
Phonon absorption or lattice
absorption
Due to absorption by bound
electrons
Fundamental absorption edge,
is determined by the band gap.
The optical properties of semiconductors are similar to
those of insulators, expect that the electronic and phonic
transitions occur at longer wavelengths. Its transparency
range lies outside the visible spectrum, so it has a dark
Metallic appearance.
1.4 Optical materials
1.41 Crystalline insulators and semiconductors
Materials can take on new properties by controlled doping with optically active
substance.
The principle of doping optically active atoms
into colourless hosts is employed extensively
in the crystals used for solid state lasers. A
typical example is the ruby crystal. Rubies
consist of Cr+3 ions doped into Al2O3. In
the natural crystals, the Cr+3 ions are present
as impurities, but in synthetic crystals, the
dopants are deliberately introduced in controlled
quantities during the crystal growth process.
Transmission spectrum of ruby (ruby Al2O3
With 0.05% Cr3+) compared to sapphire(pure
Al2O3). The thicknesses of the two crystals
were 6.1 mm and 3.0 mm, respectively
1.4 Optical materials
1.4.2 Glass
•
•
•
•
Most types of glasses are made of silica (SiO2) with other chemicals. Insulator, all the
characteristic features crystalline insulators, the trans range from around 200 nm to
beyond 2000 nm;
Small absorption and scattering losses; n changes by
less than 1% over the whole visible spectral region;
Chemicals are commonly added to silica during the fusion
process to alter the refractive index and transmission range;
Stained glass and colour glass filter are made by adding
semiconductors with gaps in visible spectral region.
1.4 Optical materials
1.4.3 Metals
•
•
•
Reflectivity of silver from the infrared to the
ultraviolet
Reflect infrared and visible, but transmit
ultraviolet (ultraviolet transmission of metals);
High reflectivity is caused by the interaction
of the light with the free electrons in metal;
There is a characteristic cut-off frequency
called the plasma frequency.
1.4 Optical materials
1.4.4 Molecular (large organic molecules) Materials
•
•
•
The molecular materials are held together by the weak van de Waals bonds, whereas
the molecules are held together by strong covalent bonds. The optical properties of
materials are similar to those of the individual molecules;
Saturated compounds: compounds which do not contain any free valence (all the
electrons are tightly held in their bonds), and are transparent in the visible, absorb in
the infrared and ultraviolet (insulator crystals);
Conjugated molecules (bezene C6H6): The electrons form large delocalized orbitals
called  orbitals which spread out across the whole molecule, therefore are less
tightly bound than the electrons in saturated molecules. The molecules with visible
absorption also tend to emit strongly at visible frequencies (semiconductors);
Absorption spectrum of the polyfluorene-based
polymers F8. Conjugated polymers such as F8
luminesce strongly When electrons are promoted
into the excited states of the molecule. The luminescence is Stokes shifted to lower energy compared
to absorption, and typically occurs in the middle of
the visible spectral region. The emission wavelength
can be tuned by small alternation to the chemical
structure of the molecular unit within the polymers.
The property has been used to develop organic light
emitting devices to cover the full visible spectral region.
1.5 Characteristic optical physics in the condensed matter
What the difference is between condensed matter and atomic or molecular
optical physics?
• Crystal symmetry
•
•
•
•
Electronic bands
Vibronic bands
The density of states
Delocalized states and collective excitations
1.5.1 Crystal symmetry
* long range translational order
Electronic bands, delocalized states, … …
*
point group symmetry
Neumann’s principle
The measurable property
point group symmetry
Any macroscopic physical property must have at least the symmetry of the
crystal structure
Optical anisotropy: birefringence, nonlinear optical coefficient … …
1.5 Characteristic optical physics in the condensed matter
1.5.1 Crystal symmetry
Optical anisotropy:
Lifting of degeneracies:
Degeneracy can be lifted by reduction of the symmetry
Splitting of the energy levels of a free atom
by the crystal field effect determined by the
symmetry class of the crystal. The splitting
Is caused by the interaction of the orbitals of
The atoms with the electric fields of the crystalline environment. Optical transition
between these crystal-field spilt levels ofen
occur in the visible region, and cause the
material to have every interesting properties
that are found in the free atoms.
1.5 Characteristic optical physics in the condensed matter
1.5.2 Electronic bands
The electronic states within the bands are
delocalized and possess the translational
invariance of the crystal. Bloch’s theorem
states that the wave functions:
 k (r )  uk (r ) exp( ik  r )
where uk(r ) is a function that has the
periodicity of the lattice. Each electronic
band has a different envelope function
As the atoms are brought closer together to
form the solid, their outer orbitals begin to
overlap with each other. These overlapping
orbitals interact strongly, and broad bands are
formed.
uk(r )
1.5.3 Vibronic bands
The band arises from the coupling of discrete electronic state to a continuous
spectrum of vibrational mode. This contrast with the electronic band that arises
from interaction between electronic states of neighbouring atoms.
1.5 Characteristic optical physics in the condensed matter
1.5.4 The density of states
This is defined as:
Number of states in the range E  ( E + d E) = g (E) d E.
g(E) is work out in practice:
g(E) = g(k)·dk / dE
This can be evaluated from knowledge of the E-k relationship for electrons or phonons.
1.5.5 Delocalized states and collective excitations
phonon: the collective excitation of lattice vibration;
exciton: formed from delocalized electrons and holes in semiconductors;
plasmon: formed from free electrons in metals and doped semiconductors;
……
many optical effects related to these … …
1.5.6 Microscopic models
Classical :
Treat both the medium and the light according to classical physics;
Semiclassical: apply quantum mechanics to atoms, treat light as a classical
electromagnetic wave;
Fully quantum: both atoms and light are treated quantum mechanically.
Exercises:
1. The complex refractive index of germanium at
~  4.141  i2.215 . Calculate
400 nm is given by n
for germanium at 400 nm: (a) the phase velocity
of light, (b) the absorption coefficient, and ( c) the
reflectivity.
2. Show that the optical density (O.D.) of a sample is
related to its transmission T and reflectively R
through:
O.D.   log 10 (T )  2 log 10 (1  R).
Hence explain how you would determine the
optical density by making two transmission
measurements, one at wavelength  where the
material absorbs, and the other at a wavelength ’
where the material is transparent.