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Exercise Science Section 2: The Skeletal System An Introduction to Health and Physical Education Ted Temertzoglou Paul Challen ISBN 1-55077-132-9 Learning Objectives for Chapter 2 • • • • • • • • • • • • The differences between the human male and female skeletons The role and functions of the skeleton in the human body The human skeleton’s basic structure and composition The five types of human bones The names and locations of the body’s key bones and bone structures The concepts of bone landmarks and insertions, and key landmark/insertion sites throughout the body The process of ossification and bone formation The process of bone remodelling Epiphyseal or growth plates of bones Bone fractures and their three main categories How bones heal Bone disease, stress fractures, and the effects of aging on bone Musculoskeletal System • Composed of 3 distinct yet interdependent components; bones, joints, muscles • Each have own contribution- the interaction of these systems allow human movement • Bones form a rigid skeletal framework with numerous joints that can be moved as a result of the forces produced by the attaching muscles • As the muscles pull against the bones, the bones act as levers. The Skeleton - ‘skeletal’- greek for skeletos= ‘dried up,’ truth it only appears this way as they are actually composed of living tissue- fat, bone cells and blood vessels and nerves- non-living material- water and minerals -made up of bones - 300 at birth 206 by adulthood. WHY? -some fuse over time as growth takes place (ex. Plates in the skull and lower parts of the vertebral column) The main functions of the skeletal system are: Structural support -support for muscles and skin Protection -protects the sensitive/delicate parts of organs(brain, heart, lungs,etc) Growth centre for cells -red blood cells and platelets Reservoir for minerals -stores calcium and phosphorus Movement - Muscles attach to bones by tendons. Muscles contract and move bones to facilitate movement Shape Example Skeleton-purpose Long Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna, metatarsals, metacarpals, phalanges - Proximal and distal enlargements - appendicular Short Carpals, tarsals (bones of the wrist and ankle) - Serve as good shock absorbers - Appendicular Flat Scapula Clavical Ribs, sternum Frontal, parietal, occipital, mandible - Bones of skull and scapula - Appendicular Appendicular Axial Axial Protect underlying organs and provide areas for muscle attachment Bone Shape Cont… Sesamoid Patella -Shaped like a pea and found wrapped in tendons- glide over surfaces -appendicular Irregular Facial bones of skull, vertebrae Pelvis - Axial - Appendicular • Workbook Exercise 2.4-pg.22 Using page 11 in your text, label each one of these bones, and provide a short description Long bone -found in arms and legs Flat bones -flat and thin -protect vital organs Sesamoid bones -small, flat and wrapped in tendons -glide over body surfaces Short bones -commonly found in wrists & ankles -serve as shock absorbers Irregular bones - “odd-looking” bones not otherwise classified Axial Skeleton: comprised mainly of the vertebral column (spine), much of the skull, and the rib cage. -most of the body’s muscles originate from the axial skeleton, since it is medially located with respect to the appendicular skeleton. -Most muscles anchor or originate here and insert on the appendicular skeleton. -muscles which attach here are referred to as “core muscles” as they are centrally located and provide the body with stability and support. Appendicular Skeleton: Includes movable limbs and supporting structures (girdles) -Plays a key role in allowing us to move -upper limbs attached to pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) lower limbs attached to the pelvic girdle (hip girdle) About Bone … Bone is very strong for its light weight Major components- calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, collagen, zinc, magnesium, fluorine, iron, chlorine and water Calcium Compounds- make up approx. 60-70% of bone weight- provide much of bones stiffness and resistance to pressing or squeezing forces. Collagen(protein)- gives bone its flexibility, and contributes to its ability to resist pulling and stretching forces Bones of children are significantly more pliable than those of adults With aging, collagen is lost progressively and bone becomes more brittle Human body consists of 60% of water, bone only contains approx. 20% (20-25%) total bone weight Resists compression and tension Bound by joints (through ligaments) Muscles attach to bone (through tendons) to produce movement Anatomy of a Long Bone Complete Workbook Exercise 2.3 on Pg.21 Cartilage Periosteum Medullary cavity Compact bone Cancellous bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis Anatomy of a Long Bone Cartilage Periosteum Medullary cavity Compact bone Cancellous bone Epiphysis Diaphysis Epiphysis Workbook Exercise 2.2 • Write the definitions of the seven terms from the above diagram in the chart on Pg.19 Anatomy of a Long Bone • Articulating Cartilage – allows smooth movement (articulation) within joints while protecting the ends of the bones-no blood supply or nerve endings • Periosteum – outer connective tissue of bone(covers entire length of bone), does not connect to articulating cartilage, periosteum fibres and those of ligaments and tendons unite to connect bone to bone or muscle to muscle. • Medullary(marrow)Cavity – inside the diaphysis(shaft) of the bone and filled with • red(blood-cell formation) and yellow(adipose-fat) bone marrow Compact Bone/Cortical Bone – 5-10% porous(low), VERY strong and stiff,- less flexible and can resist greater stress- responsible for structural integrity of the bone. • Epiphysis – ends of the bone- outer surface made up of compact bone, and the part that articulates with another bones is covered with cartilage. • Diaphysis – thickest part of the bone, the shaft • Cancellous/Spongy Bone/trabecular – very porous (50-90%)there fore how it gets its spongy name- NOT dense- very weak and not stiff- found at ends of long bones and areas where shock absorption and a better ability to change shape are important i.e. vertebrae • Mineral storage, red blood cell regeneration • • Interior core- contains network of bony plates and rods (trabeculae) that results in a lattice look- mesh with blood vessels and the bone marrow Cortex- exterior layer of bones- dense and smooth- varying thickness depending on type of bone. • What bones strengthen with exercise? Skeleton Complete and study the following handouts! Human Skeleton Anterior view Human Skeleton Posterior view Bone Landmarks • Workbook Exercise 2.5 (Pg.25-35) – Using your textbook (Pg.16-28) start familiarizing yourself with the major bone landmarks and muscle origins and insertions associated with these landmarks Cont’d… Bone Landmarks (Cont’d) • Workbook Exercise 2.7 – Colour code the important landmarks – Pay attention to the names of the landmarks ex Supraspinous fossa, Infraspinous fossa, Medial border, Lateral border ©Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 2003. All material is copyright protected. It is illegal to copy any of this material. This material may be used only in a course of study in which Exercise The Skull – Anterior View Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone Nasal bone Zygomatic bone Maxilla Mandible The Skull – Lateral View Frontal bone Parietal bone Temporal bone Zygomatic bone Occipital bone Maxilla Nuchal line Mastoid process External auditory meatus Mandible ©Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 2003. All material is copyright protected. It is illegal to copy any of this material. This material may be used only in a course of study in which Exercise Science: An Introduction to Health and Physical Education (Temertzoglou/Challen) is the required textbook. The Vertebral Column – Lateral View Composed of 36 bones. Cervical region - 7 cervical (neck) vertebrae- first two named atlas (C1) and the axis (C2) - 12 Thoracic Thoracic region (chest) vertebrae - 5 Lumbar (lower back) vertebrae - 1 Sacrum(midline region of buttocks) made up of 5 fused Lumbar region vertebrae - 1 coccyx (tail bone) made up of 4-5 fused Sacral and coccygeal region vertebrae Atlas Axis Seventh cervical vertebra Intervertebral disk Twelfth thoracic vertebra First lumbar vertebra Fifth lumbar vertebra Sacrum Coccyx Vertebral Column • Arranged in cylindrical column interspersed with fibrocartilaginous (intervertebral) discs • Forms a strong and flexible support for the neck and trunk • Point of attachment for back muscles • Protects the spinal cord and nerves, but also provides support for the body and the ability to keep the body erect. • Intervertebral discs- absorb shock when the load increases- allowing the vertebrae to move without causing damage to other vertebrae or the spinal cord. Thoracic Cage – Anterior View -12 pairs of ribs- made up of bone and cartilage thus giving strength to the chest cage and permit it to expand - Upper 7- true ribs (attaching to both the Seven true ribs vertebrae and the sternum) - 8-20- 3 pairs are false ribs- (attaching to the sternum indirectly) - 11-12= floating ribs- only attach to the vertebrae column - All 12 ribs articulate with Three false ribs the 12 thoracic vertebrae, posteriorly Two floating ribs First thoracic vertebra Manubrium Sternal Body Xiphoid process Sternum Thoracic Cage – Posterior View Clavicle Scapula Left Scapula – Anterior View Acromion process Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Subscapular fossa Lateral border Medial border Inferior angle Left Scapula – Lateral View Coracoid process Acromion Supraglenoid tubercle Glenoid fossa Infraglenoid tubercle Subscapular fossa Lateral border Inferior angle Left Scapula – Posterior View Coracoid process Acromion process Scapular notch Superior angle Supraspinous fossa Glenoid cavity Infraglenoid tubercle Scapular spine Infraspinous fossa Medial border Lateral border Left Humerus – Anterior View Head Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular (bicipital) groove Deltoid tuberosity Shaft Capitulum Radial fossa Coronoid fossa Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Trochlea Left Humerus – Posterior View Head Shaft Deltoid tuberosity Olecranon fossa Lateral epicondyle Trochlea Medial epicondyle Left Ulna – Anterior View Olecranon Olecranon process Coronoid process Styloid process of ulna Trochlear (semilunar) notch Radial notch of ulna Ulna tuberosity Left Radius – Anterior View Head Radial tuberosity Styloid process of radius Left Hand – Anterior View Carpals (proximal) Ulna Scaphoid bone Lunate bone Triquetrum bone Pisiform bone Radius Hamate bone Capitate bone Trapezoid bone Trapezium bone Carpals (distal) Metacarpals Sesamoid bone Proximal phalax (of thumb) Distal phalanx (of thumb) Phalanges (Digits) Proximal phalanx (of finger) Middle phalanx (of finger) Distal phalanx (of finger) Pelvis (Male) – Anterior View Sacrum Crest of ilium Sacroiliac joint Ilium Anterior superior iliac spine Anterior inferior iliac spine Acetabulum Obturator foramen Os coxae Pubis Ischium Superior ramis of pubis Symphysis pubis Inferior ramis of pubis Pelvis (Male) – Posterior View Fifth lumbar vertebra Sacrum Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Ischial spine Ischial tuberosity Coccyx Right Femur – Anterior View Head Greater trochanter Neck Intertrochanteric line Lesser trochanter Shaft Adductor tubercle Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Patellar groove Medial condyle Right Femur – Posterior View Head Greater trochanter Neck Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Lesser trochanter Pectineal line Linea aspera Shaft Intercondylar fossa Adductor tubercle Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Medial condyle Right Fibula and Tibia – Anterior View Intercondylar eminence Lateral condyle of tibia Head Medial condyle of tibia Tibial tuberosity Intercondylar eminence Lateral condyle Medial condyle Anterior crest Fibula Tibia Lateral malleolus Medial malleolus Tibial tuberosity Right Foot – Superior View Calcaneus Talus Tarsals Cuboid Metatarsals Navicular Medial cuneiform Intermediate cuneiform Lateral cuneiform Proximal phalanx Phalanges (Digits) Middle phalanx Distal phalanx Proximal phalanx (of great toe) Distal phalanx (of great toe) Bone Formation Ossification (Osteogenesis): the process by which new bone is produced Osteoblasts –bone forming cells 2 Forms: 1) Compact bone (long bones) -begins as cartilage 3 steps: 1)hormones excite osteoblasts 2) gelatin-like(osteoid) substance discharged from osteoblasts in cartilage 3) minerals deposited in gel and harden into bone 2) Cancellous bone (flat bones of skull) -begin as fibrous membranes -osteoblast release osteoid into membrane which forms a sponge-like bundle of fibres -new bone forms “outward” from centre of bundle - converts “soft spots” at birth into bone because bone formation is still incomplete Bone Remodelling • Bones do not just grow by osteoblasts laying down new bone. Instead, it is more a process of give and take • Actually, it’s more TAKE and GIVE OSTEOBLASTS OSTEOCLASTS • protein secreting cells (osteoblast) deposit new tissue (bone) • bone-resorbing cells • remove old bone by releasing acids and enzymes Birth to ~ 35 deposition > removal = growth After 35 deposition < removal = shrink Epiphyseal Plates and Lines Epiphyseal plates (growth plates) Occur at various locations at the Epiphyseal line epiphyses of long bones Growth possible X-rays pass through cartilage and they appear as black spaces between the diaphysis and epiphyses Epiphyseal lines Occur when epiphyseal plates have fused or come together Growth not possible Epiphyseal X-ray shows a solid epiphysis plate Epiphyseal Plates and Lines Bone Fractures Bones, like all other structural supports need to contend with 4 different types of forces: TENSION: pulling TORSION: twisting force apart or stretching force SHEAR: COMPRESSION: pushing together What happens if one of those forces becomes too great? Bone Fractures: : • Problems with the skeletal system can be associated with many factors; nutrition, infection, physical accidents. • Young children have weaker bones since calcification is still incomplete, older people have weaker bones because of the loss of calcium associated with aging. • Fractures are bone “breaks,” and are normally divided into two types: 1. Simple Fractures there is no separation of the bone into parts, but a break or crack is detectable “hairline/greenstick fracture”- bone is not exposed to the air through the skin. 2. Compound Fractures Occurs when the bone breaks into separate pieces. Bones is exposed to the air through the skin. Result of a major blow. • If bone breaks through the skin there is usually more serious complications i.e. muscle and ligament damage 3. Comminuted Fracture Occurs when the broken ends of the bone have been shattered into many pieces. ©Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 2003. All material is copyright protected. It is illegal to copy any of this Bone Fractures: SYMPTOMS • sharp pain and tenderness when palpated • swelling and discolouration • grinding sound on movement • inability to use HEALING OF BONES •bones heal using the same process as remodeling •if dealt with correctly, the process will go smoothly •result may be an even stronger bone -video- Bob and Claude Types of Fractures Compound fracture •Bone breaks into separate pieces http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_wxebhExcTk Comminuted fracture •Bone shatters into many pieces Types of Fractures Simple fracture Stress Fracture •Most difficult to detect •Muscles become too fatigued to absorb shock •Transfers impact to bone which results in tiny crack •No separation (hairline/greenstick fracture) Effects of Aging – Skeletal System Remodelling declines from fourth decade onward Process of bone remodelling reverses – resorption occurs Results in a 5–10% loss in bone mass per subsequent decade Affects overall calcium levels in the body Osteoporosis (low bone mass and deterioration of the bone tissue) may result from resorption Leads to bone fragility Increased susceptibility to bone fractures Preventative measures include: Balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, and a healthy lifestyle Weight-bearing exercises Bone density testing and medication when appropriate