Download Managing Biodiversity - SLC Geog A Level Blog

Global threats
•
Globally there are a number of trends which threaten ecosystems and
biodiversity
Global Threat and its consequences
Global Warming
•Rising sea levels threaten coastal ecosystems (coral,
mangroves, estuaries)
•Rising ocean temperatures threaten coral through
bleaching
•Shifts in climate zones will stress biomes; migration
patterns will be altered; some biomes (tundra, montane
forest) may be wiped out.
Desertification
•A widespread and complex problem, some 10-20% of
dryland ecosystems are already degraded; grasslands
are very vulnerable
•Overgrazing, climate change, poor farming practice and
population pressure all contribute
•Once soil is eroded, ecosystem recovery is very difficult
Poverty and food
insecurity
Population pressure, poverty and the need to produce
food are leading to unsustainable use of ecosystems
worldwide
Overfishing, deforestation, conversion of ecosystems
into farmland are all major causes of ecosystem and
biodiversity loss
•
Local threats
In small scale areas, local threats can be numerous and represent a
severe threat to ecosystems and biodiversity.
Localised deforestation;
clearance for farming and
urbanisation
Mining, ranching and
overgrazing, road building
leading to ecosystem
fragmentation
Tourism development;
trampling, erosion; urbanisation
and associated pollution;
increased risk of wildfires
Runoff from farms and urban
areas; eutrophication and
heavy metals in rivers, lakes
and seas
Overfishing and harmful
forms of fishing e.g.
dynamite and cyanide
Siltation from runoff;
increased risk of alien
invasive species
•
•
•
•
•
Ecosystem
destruction
Pristine ecosystems are rare today
Highly developed countries tend to
have few of them, although they
may use their wealth to protect,
conserve and restore ecosystems
Wealth, and leisure time, tend to
mean people have positive
attitudes to the environment
In NICs and RICs (see graph)
threats to ecosystems tend to be
severe, as ecosystems are used
as resources and there is limited
money for conservation
In less developed countries, yet to
industrialise, ecosystem may not
be exploited yet – but for how
long?
Managing Biodiversity
The key players in management?
Brainstorm ALL the players you think are involved
Transnational and
private enterprise
Indigenous people
Scientists
and
researchers
Local and
regional
governments
Players in
ecosystem
management
International
organisations
Artists and poets
NGOs
stakeholders
Special interest
groups
National
governments
Local
farmers
Individuals
Global Players
• There are 150 wildlife treaties in place
• Such things require a number of nations to sign before becoming
law
• Most involve funding conservation work, designating protected
areas, or regulating endangered species
• The 5 most important treaties in place today are
• RAMSAR Convention- wetland conservation signed 1971- adopted
by 147 countries
• World Heritage Convention- to designate and protect
outstanding cultural and natural sites- signed 1972, by over 180
countries
• The Convention on International trade in Endangered Speciessigned in 1973, adopted by 166 countries
• The convention on the conservation of Migratory Species of
Wild Animals was signed in 1979 and by 2005 adopted by 90
countries to prevent shooting of birds in passage
• The UN Convention on the Law of the sea- ratified by 148
countries
Other global players
•
•
•
•
•
•
Transnational corporation's are involved, have say in which goods/
services are mostly exploited- increasingly they are moving to greener
strategies for long term benefit and to improve public image
They also drive innovation and technology, sometimes for the common
good, but sometimes to the detriment of the ecosystem involved
Other international institutions which are involved- UN agencies,
World Bank, World Trade Organisation and the International Tropical
Timber Organisation
Non government Organisations- such as Greenpeace and WWF provide
vital biodiversity conservation
WWF works in over 100 countries- it’s mission is to stop the
degradation of the planets natural environment and build an
environment where people live in harmony with nature
Others are smaller such as FAN (A small NGO working in Eastern
Bolivia to conserve biodiversity by using natural resources in a
sustainable way).
National Players
• Government- regulate and facilitate
• Regulation- establish and enforce laws to conserve
genetic biodiversity, protect various areas and
species and regulate damaging activities such as using
polluting agro chemicals or releasing invasive species
• They also manage natural resources providing clean
air water or open space
• They fund preservation conservation and
development, often through taxes and subsidies
• Positive incentives to conserve are increasingly used,
e.g. paying farmers to be stewards of the landscape
and to farm in environmentally friendly ways
Local players
• Indigenous people are often dependant on
biodiversity for basic survival
• For many local biodiversity has spiritual
significance
• Locals have good knowledge of local plants
and their uses, e.g. traditional medicine
• Local fishers/ farmers can conflict with
conservationists because they live a subsistence
lifestyle relying on the ecosystem for survival
• Ecosystem management issues are increasingly in
previously remote areas like the Amazon and
Antarctica- as more people visit pressures arise
• Some individuals can join together to form special
interest groups- they can degrade delicate areas
• Conflict can arise from scientists hunting for new
drugs, species with indigenous people who just want
to continue their existence
Individual players
• Most diverse group of all
• All having individual morals, beliefs and needs on each
ecosystem
• eg Sting, Al Gore, David Attenborough - certain
individual campaigners have the ability to reach a global
audience and push for change.
• In OECD countries ethical consumerism is increasing
people buying dolphin friendly tuna.
• Spiritual and recreational demands for new tourist
destinations means areas like the Galapagos and
Arctic are experiencing mass tourism.
What to conserve?
•
•
There is not, and never will be, a limitless pot of money for conservation.
Decisions have to be taken about what should be conserved , but these
decisions are difficult to make
ICONIC species
Raising money for Pandas, Tigers and
Chimps is relatively easy, but how
important are they at a global level?
KEYSTONE species
Species such as Bees, the pollinators of
numerous plants, are crucial but hard to
‘sell’ to a wary public
HOTSPOTS
Hotspots are clearly under threat and
very biodiverse; they would yield a lot of
conversation per $ spent, but many
areas (like the Arctic) are not biodiverse
enough to qualify
ECOREGIONS
Ecoregions are large areas, like
Amazonia; conserving them would
achieve a great deal, but would be
expensive and difficult to police and
monitor. Ecoregions do fit the ‘Single
Large’ rather than ‘several small’ model
which would allow species to shift due to
climate change.
Sustainable Yield= key part of sustainable ecosystem management.
It represents the safe level of harvest that can be hunted/ caught/
utilised without harming the individual ecosystem.
How do they measure the sustainable level?
• Maximum sustainable yield- greatest harvest that can be taken
indefinitely while leaving the ecosystem intact. Harvesting wild
plants, animals or fish is part of the subsistence lifestyle of
indigenous people and is usually sustainable.
• Over harvesting or overexploitation are usually the result of
commercial rather than subsistence activity. When activities such as
shooting elephants for ivory or harvesting shellfish and logging in
natural forests- the targets and their habitats are under threat
• Optimum sustainable yield- best compromise achievable in the light
of all the economic and social considerations. This will not destroy
the aesthetic or recreational value of the ecosystem and will
therefore allow multiple use for the maximum benefit to the
community.
• In order to manage fish/ wildlife mathematical models have been
developed to estimate the CARRYING CAPACITY (CC). This is
maximum human population that can exist in equilibrium with the
available resources (food, nutrients, etc).
• The major problem is that the CC varies seasonally and over time
can be reduced by Climate Change
Intense competition for food
Carrying capacity
Population begins to be
threatened by over harvesting
MSY in practice
No cover against
predators
Mortality
high,
population
reproducti
on low
Population declines for natural reasons,
more rapidly if over harvesting occurs
Maximum sustained yield
halfway between 0 and the CC
OSY lower than MSY, so ecosystem still
has high aesthetic value
Carefully controlled harvesting
allows population growth
Managing biodiversity
•
•
•
•
•
Given that 7.2 billion humans cannot
stop ‘using’ ecosystems, is there are
safe way to use them?
A certain level of use (yield) is
sustainable – be it logging, fishing,
hunting etc.
This level is the Maximum
Sustainable Yield for a species /
ecosystem – the level at which
utilisation by humans does not lead
to long term decline in species
numbers
In reality, taking the MSY leaves no
room for error (or climate change,
disease etc)
The Optimum Yield is lower, and
safer in terms of long term
sustainability.
Sustainable Yields in the Southern
Ocean
• Managed since 1961 since the Antarctic treaty came
into force. Before this they were exhausted and
overfished. Several fin fish became extinct. A model
was used to calculate the fishing yield.
• Whaling is banned
• No culling of fur or elephant seals
• Limits placed on krill taking
• Protection of penguins and other Antarctic sea birds,
as they being in food web have an impact on sea
stocks
• Environmental protection in place- no military action
or waste dumping, so air pollution kept to minimum
• Few visitors, mainly scientists and some seasonal
tourists, but little noise pollution
Southern ocean SYM – A 3 prong approach!
* Single species approach sets limits for
harvesting individual species that are
indefinitely sustainable.
* Ecosystem approach involves considering
harvested species both on their own and in
relation to dependant species and whole
environment.
* Precautionary principle aims to model
consequences of any planned expansion of
catches before it is permitted.
Case study: CAMPFIRE approach – Why did it collapse?
Under British colonial rule large sections of
indigenous population in Zimbabwe were
forced to live in communal areas - tribal
trust lands.
Communal Areas Management Programme
for indigenous resources (CAMPFIRE)
project was set up in the late 1980’s. It was
aimed at long-term development,
management and sustainable use of natural
resources in each communal area.
Case study: CAMPFIRE approach
The responsibility was placed with local
people, whilst allowing them to benefit
directly from the exploitation of resources.
‘Bottom Up’ Approach – varies and advice is
given by the Zimbabwe Department of
National Parks and Wildlife Management.
Case study: CAMPFIRE approach
Many of the schemes made money from biggame hunting at sustainable yield
levels…this money was then fed back into
the community.
The economic collapse of Zimbabwe
undermined the whole scheme. Loss of
staff, lack of funding, poaching, hunger saw
it collapse.
Demonstrate: Questions…
Describe what sustainable yield means (5)
Explain how the Southern Oceans and
CAMPIRE are examples of sustainable
management. (10)
Strategies and policies
Scientific
Reserve
Community
wildlife
management
Wildlife
Reserves
and parks
Economic
development
integrated
into
conservation
Extractive
reserves
Tolerant
forest
management
Exploitation
with token
protection
What sort of protection?
In the 1960’s total protection was the only
method of conservation!
In the 1980’s biosphere reserves were
established with buffer zones…for use by
local people
21ST Century conservation now means
species protection, scientific reserves, as
well as incorporating economic development
with biodiversity.
What factors is successful conservation
influenced by?
Demonstrate: What are the problems with the ‘total protection
strategy’?
In LEDCs conflict between conservation and
cutting people off from biodiversity
Totally protected reserves can be focussed
on for scientific purposes and fail to see that
conservation is influence by social,
economic, etc
Many schemes were based on political and
economic boundaries where as ecosystems
are defined by natural borders!!
Coordination from outside agencies which do
not always know about needs of local people
Biosphere reserves
•
•
•
•
•
One of the most common form of
conservation management is the
UNESCO Biosphere reserve
model
Biosphere reserves use the
principle of zoning to conserve
core ecological areas, whilst
allowing some economic
development – such as ecotourism or managed hunting or
logging
Educating local people to
conserve resources for future
generations is important
Biosphere reserves usually have
scientific research and monitoring
activities too
Famous locations such as the
Galapagos and Komodo NP use
elements of the biosphere reserve
model
Activate: What are biosphere reserves?
Reserves are a popular strategy. Many are in
favour of ‘corridor’ like reserves running
north-south. Global warming drives species
from the poles will still be protected!
Many people feel that conservation should
target ‘hotspots’.
WWF favours a broad approach to save
larger areas and more species.
Some others feel we should concentrate in
LEDCs where it would cost less and get
better value for money.
• Continental Hotspots
• Large Island Hotspots
• Small Island Hotspots
• Marine Hotspots
ATLANTIC
FOREST
AUSTRALIA
MADAGASCAR
CORAL REEF
The top 25 land-based hotspots are divided
into 3 categories
1. Continental hotspots
(richest in terms of biodiversity)
2. Large island (or continental island) hotspots
(contain diverse & distinctive species inc
relict fauna extinct elsewhere)
3. Small island hotspots
(low in species no’s but high in proportion of
endemics so at great risk of being wiped out)
Has ensured that the ‘best bits’- areas with the highest
levels of biodiversity, substantial levels of endemism
(unique/rare species) are conserved and protected.
Areas under threat are commonly in the tropics and in
developing countries where conservation costs are much
lower (cheap labour) – idea of value for money.
Hotspots now covers marine area under threats in addition to
terrestrial ecosystems
Even with the additions of marine hotspots under 2% of the earth
and 0.017% of oceans are protected by this approach
The distribution of areas protected is very uneven. Most hotspots
lie in the tropics e.g. rainforests. Many ecosystems such as Tundra,
Taiga and Temperate Forest are not included.
Huge areas of the world are not covered including many areas under
great threat e.g. Arctic Ocean, or many outstanding smaller regions
such as Galapagos . These are not protected because they do not
meet all three criteria to be a hot spot. Polar bears subsequently
face extinction.
Hotspots tend to follows protectionist approach. This entails
removing people and their activities from areas under threat. This
has occurred in tropical countries where indigenous people have been
forced off their land in favour of creating big reserves.
Restoring degraded areas
• The ultimate conservation challenge
• i.e. Recreating wetlands
• Or linking fragmented reserve areas to make larger
reserves easier to manage and more biodiverse
• These schemes rely on how degraded land is the more
degraded and polluted the harder it is
• An example of this is the Great Fens recreation
project in East Anglia, UK.
Conservation
• Other approaches to conservation, ex situ conservation, e.g.
captive breeding of endangered animals in zoos.
• Zoos also contain biodiversity banks such as seed banks for
plants
• Several species have been saved in this way such as Scimitar
horned Oryx, bred at Marwell Zoo and re released into Arabia
• Giant pandas are also being bred in captivity to increase
numbers
• Some people do not like zoos feeling sorry for captive animals,
but they play a vital role in education of people and allowing
people to see animals they otherwise may not see
•IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is considered the
most comprehensive record of the conservation status of
plants and animals.
•Essentially precise criteria is utilised by different countries
and organisations to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands
of species and subspecies.
• These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of
the world.
• Records are continually being updated.
• The IUCN aim to convey the urgency of conservation
issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the
international community try and reduce species extinction.
• The Living Planet Index (LPI) is an indicator of the state
of global biological diversity, based on trends in vertebrate
species- fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds mammals- from all
around the world.
• By tracking wild species, the Living Planet Index is also
monitoring the health of ecosystems.
• The information can be used to define the impact humans
are having on the planet and for guiding actions to address
biodiversity loss.
•The WWF developed a system of eco-regions.
• They are deemed the most biologically distinct
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems on the
planet and subsequently are to be protected and
conserved to ensure species, habitats and ecological
processes continue.
• The eco-regions identified are to be representative of
all ecosystems of that type.
•http://worldwildlife.org/biomes
a) Explain the distribution of the world’s terrestrial and
marine hotspots in Figure 3.
1
• Define hotspot
2
• Terrestrial hotspots - % land covered. Geographical
location of majority of hotspots. Examples. Biodiversity
Threats
3
• Marine hotspots- types of ecosystem. Examples.
Threats.
4
• Explanation – detailed locations mentioned. Explains
reasons for high biodiversity. Highlights range of
ecological niches, complex food chains, details of
endemism and reasons for the range of threats.
b) Evaluate the relative advantages and disadvantages of the
‘hotspot’ approach to biodiversity management (compared
with other strategies) (15)
1
• For hotspot approach
2
• Against hotspot approach – against protectionist
approach
3
4
• Alterative mode of conservation
• conclusion
Biodiversity- the future?
To look at possible futures for the
biodiversity of our planet
Current problems
• Only 12% of Earth is said to warrant protection. Only
1% of marine areas
• Protected areas are fragmented and unevenly
distributed
• Funds are short, especially in LDC countries
• Although it is said to be protected does not mean
area will be successfully conserved
• Areas not protected are still very threatened by
pollution, climate change invasive species and
unsustainable development
•
•
•
•
Biodiversity futures
2010 was the UN International Year of Biodiversity
This alone shows how important biodiversity is to the planet’s
future.
UNEPs GEO-4 Project (2007) identifies 4 possible futures for
biodiversity and ecosystems (below)
There are some difficult choices to be made!
Markets First
Profit driven future, playing lipservice to sustainability. Continued
degradation of biodiversity
Policy First
A greater balance between human and
ecological wellbeing, but humans are
put first by short-termist policymakers
and ecosystems are protected when
possible and expedient
Security First
Sustainability First
‘Me First’ – the focus is on maintaining
the wealth of the few in a very unequal
world; IGOs like the UN are viewed with
suspicion; the environment is there to be
exploited.
Equal weight is given to human and
ecological wellbeing , and thinking is longterm to gradually recover lost ecological
ground
Biodiversity and the Millennium
Development Goals
• The millennium development goals adopted by world leaders in
September 2000 at the millennium UN summit
• The 8 MDGs break down into 21 quantifiable targets that are
measured by 60 indicators.
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
• Obviously goal 7 deals explicitly with biodiversity, but
biodiversity is interlinked with many other goals
• Eradicating hunger (goal 1) depends much on
sustainable agricultural production , which relies on
maintaining soils
• The capacity of fisheries to supply hundreds of
people with bulk of protein depends on maintaining
coral and mangroves
• Improving health and sanitation (goals 4,5 and
6)require healthy freshwater ecosystems to provide
adequate clean water and medicinal resources
• This contributes to gender equality (MDG 3) as
women are mainly responsible for water collection
Link between poverty and
biodiversity
• Poverty and biodiversity are inextricably linked
• Poor ~(esp rural) rely on biodiversity for food, fuel,
shelter, medicine and livelihood
• Biodiversity also provides the critical ecosystems on
which development depends, including air and water
purification
• Biodiversity exacerbates poverty and likewise poverty
is a major threat to biodiversity
Scenarios
•
The Millennium Ecosystems Assessment (MEA), tried
to explore plausible futures for ecosystems and
human well being by 2050
They explored
a) New development pathways- one where world
increasingly globalises, the other where it becomes
increasingly regional
b) 2 different approaches to ecosystem managementone in which actions are reactive and most problems
are addressed only after they are obvious, the other
in which ecosystem management is proactive and
policies seek to manage ecosystem services for the
future
The MEAs 4 scenarios
GLOBAL ORCHESTRATION (1)
Globally connected society
focussing on global trade and
economic liberalisation
Approach to ecosystem issues is
reactive. Strong steps are taken to
reduce poverty and inequality and
invests in public goods. Economic
growth is highest here and
predicted population is lowest
ORDER FROM STRENGTH (2)
Regionalised and fragmented world,
concerned with security and
protection. Little attention to
public goods. Reactive approach to
ecosystem management Economic
growth rates are lowest (esp in
poorer areas) Population growth is
the highest
ADAPTING MOSAIC (3)
Regional watershed scale
ecosystems are focus of political
and economic activity. Local
management of ecosystems common.
Proactive ecosystem management.
Initial economic growth is low but
increases over time. Population
nearly as high as in 2
TECHNO GARDEN (4)
Globally connected world reliant on
env sound tech, using highly
managed ecosystems to deliver
services. Takes a proactive
approach to ecosystem management
Economic growth relatively high and
accelerates. Population is mid range
of scenarios
• And 130-33 of oxford
• What are the pros and cons of each of the
4 scenarios?
• Which overall do you think offers the best
scenario? Why?
WWF’s living Planet Index Report
• Defines two possible pathways (actions and ways), on the basis
of these WWF anticipates 4 possible scenarios
• Business as usual- increased ecological footprint and no
reduction in the overshoot (ecological deficit) or of the degree
to which consumption exceeds biological capacities
• Slow shift- gradual eco footprint reduction through developing
sustainable policies so that biological capacities recover by 2100
• Rapid reduction- radical policies to control ecological footprint,
overshoot eliminated by 2040
• Shrink and share- breaking down the world into regions in order
to share responsibilities of controlling overshoot by global
cooperation
The convention on Biodiversity
• Signed by 150 world leaders at Rio Earth
Summit in 1992
• Signed to achieve reduction in current loss
rate of biodiversity at all scales
• Convention recognises people’s role in
protection and conservation that people need
to have security before protecting the
environment around them
• The positive trend from this
• Protected areas have doubled
• Water quality has been improved
What are the prospects of achieving the
target?
• Temperate degradation is predicted to reduce, but
tropical will increase
• Time lags are too big changes cannot make a
difference over night it takes years, so sooner
started sooner results seen
• Agricultural efficiency needs to improve rapidly to
reduce impact on biodiversity
• Trade agreements should involve looking at how
biodiversity is affected
• Strategies to reduce poverty need to include
conservation and sustainable biodiversity use
Which of 4 most likely to be
achieved?
• discuss
Review Questions
• Analyse the 4 MEA scenarios assess which you think
is most likely to be achieved (14 marks)
• How far is it possible to reconcile the desire for
development with the need to manage biodiversity (14
marks)