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Effective Training: Strategies, Systems and Practices, 3rd Edition Chapter Three P. Nick Blanchard and James W. Thacker Factors Determining Human Performance PERFORMANCE (P) MOTIVATION (M) KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND ATTITUDES (KAS) ENVIRONMENT (E) P = M x KSA x E Chapter 3 2 Universal Need Based Theories of Motivation Maslow Hierarchy of Needs Physiological, security, social, achievement, self actualization ERG Existence, relatedness, growth Chapter 3 3 Cultural Based Need Theories of Motivation McClelland Achievement, affiliation, power Hofstede Collectivism/individualism, masculinity/femininity, power distance, uncertainty avoidance Chapter 3 4 3.5 Hofstede’s Framework Power Distance • Uncertainty Avoidance • Degree to which influence/control are unequally distributed among individuals within a particular culture Degree to which members of a society attempt to avoid ambiguity, risk, and indefiniteness of future Individualism / Collectivism • • Extent to which society expects people to take care of themselves and their immediate families The degree to which individuals believe they are masters of their own destiny Chapter 3 5 3.6 Hofstede’s Framework (cont.) • Tendency of group members to focus on the common welfare and feel loyalty toward one another Masculinity/Femininity • Degree to which acquisition of money and material things is valued versus quality of life Confucian dynamism • • • Stability of society is based on unequal relationships Family is the prototype of all organizations People should treat others as they would like to be treated Chapter 3 6 INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM Please indicate you level of agreement or disagreement with each of the following statements using the following scale: Strongly Disagree ` 1 Neither Disagree nor Agree 2 3 4 Strongly Agree 5 6 _____ 1. I would rather struggle through a personal problem by myself than discuss it with my friends. _____ 2. I do my own things without minding about my colleagues/co-workers, when I am among them. ______3. I like to live close to my close friends. ______4. I would pay absolutely no attention to my close friends’ views when deciding what Chapter 3 7 kind of work to do. ______5. We ought to develop the character of independence among students, so that they do not rely upon other students’ help in their schoolwork. ______6. It is a personal matter whether I worship money or not. Therefore, it is not necessary for my friends to give my counsel. ______7. There is everything to gain and nothing to lose for classmates to group themselves together for study and discussion. ______8. Classmates’ assistance is indispensable to getting a good grade at school. ______9. If you work, and you have to choose between (A) getting along very well with your co-workers, and (B) being very competent and efficient in doing the job, what combination of the two aspects would you like best? (Use the scale below to make your response for this question.) 1 = 100% A 4 = 40% A, 60%B 2 = 80% A, 20%B 5 = 20% A, 80%B Chapter 3 3 = 60% A, 40%B 6 = 100% B 8 _____10. Man is a social animal; he cannot flourish and grow without identifying himself with some group. _____11. Some of life’s greatest satisfactions are found in working cooperatively with others. _____12. Individuals do not really fulfill their human potentials unless they involve themselves deeply in some group. _____13. It is often more gratifying to work for the accomplishment of a goal held by a group to which one belongs than to work for the attainment of a purely personal goal. _____14. In life an individual should for the most part “go it alone’ assuring oneself of privacy, having time to oneself, attempting to resist being influenced by others. _____15. It is just as important to work toward group goals and adhere to the established rules of the group as it is to gratify one’s individual desires. Chapter 3 9 COLLECTIVISM SCORING ITEMS 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9, AND 14 ARE REVERSED SCORED 6=1 5=2 4=3 3=4 2=5 1=6 Chapter 3 10 CULTURAL VALUES Variable United States Collectivism Femininity Masculinity Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance Taiwan 57.72 4.47 4.95 2.19 66.78 4.77 4.65 1.98 3.18 3.56 Chapter 3 11 INDIVIDUALISM /COLLECTIVISM HIGH – United States (1/53), Australia, Great Britain, New Zealand, Denmark, Sweden, France MODERATE – Japan, Iran, Brazil, Arab Countries, Greece LOW – Columbia, Venezuela, Panama, Guatamala Chapter 3 12 MASCULINITY/FEMININITY HIGH – Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Mexico, United States (15/53) MODERATE – Canada, Malaysia, Pakistan, Brazil, Singapore, Israel LOW – Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden Chapter 3 13 POWER DISTANCE HIGH – Malaysia, Mexico, Venezuela, Arab Countries, India, Singapore MODERATE – Thailand, Portugal, Greece, South Korea, Taiwan, Spain, Japan LOW – United States (38/53), Finland, Norway, Sweden, New Zealand, Denmark Chapter 3 14 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE HIGH – Greece, Portugal, Belgium, Japan, Peru, France MODERATE – Taiwan, Arab Countries, Thailand, Iran, Finland LOW – United States (43/53), India, Great Britain, Sweden Chapter 3 15 Classical Conditioning Food ------------------ Salivation Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Bell Neutral Stimulus Food (UCS)-------------- Salivation Bell ------------------- Salivation Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Chapter 3 16 Aversive Conditioning Loud Noise ---------------- Aversive Reaction (UCS) (UCR) Mouse (NS) Loud Noise (UCS) --------- Aversive Reaction Mouse (CS) ----------- Aversive Reaction (CR) Chapter 3 17 Operant Conditioning Skinner Organism active/goal directed Stimulus Response Reinforcement |_____+_____| Thorndike – “Law of Effect” Chapter 3 18 Reinforcement and Punishment Positive Reinforcer Negative Reinforcer Present after behavior Positive Reinforcement Punishment Withdraw after behavior Punishment Negative Reinforcement Chapter 3 19 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous – every time behavior occurs Partial Fixed – ratio and interval Variable – ratio and interval Chapter 3 20 Punishment Side Effects Temporary suppression No knowledge of correct behavior Generalized to inappropriate situations Punisher associated with punishment Tendency to be inconsistent Chapter 3 21 Reducing Side Effects Make undesired behavior clear Make desired behavior clear Provide reinforcers for desired behavior Chapter 3 22 Expectancy Model abilities/training Effort Performance Outcomes role perceptions Expectancy = Effort Performance Instrumentality=PerformanceOutcomes Valence = Importance of Outcomes Chapter 3 23 Illustration of Expectancy Theory EXPECTANCY 1 EXPECTANCY 2 (.5) (1.0) Stay on the job and meet work load requirements (.9) (.3) EFFORT (1.0) CONSEQUENCES VALENCE Skills Seen as inadequate 1 Feel pride and accomplishment 7 Recommended for promotion 10 Skills seen as complete 7 Fall behind at work; feel overloaded, depressed, etc. 1 (.6) Successfully Complete seminar (.6) (1.0) Chapter 3 24 Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning Theory – Part 1 of 2 Issue Cognitive Approach Behavorist Approach Learner’s role Active, self-directed, self-evaluating Passive, dependent Instructor’s role Facilitator, coordinator, and presenter Director, monitor, and evaluator Training content Problem or task oriented Subject oriented Learner motivation More internally motivated More externally motivated Chapter 3 25 Some Training Implications of Cognitive and Behaviorist Learning Theory – Part 2 of 2 Issue Cognitive Approach Behavorist Approach Training climate Relaxed, mutually trustful and respectful, collaborative Formal, authority oriented, judgmental competitive Instructional goals Collaboratively developed Developed by instructor Instructional activities Interactive, group, project oriented, experiential Directive, individual subject oriented Chapter 3 26 Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning Types – Part 1 of 4 Learning Type Description 1.Signal learning Learning a general response to a specific signal. Pavlov’s classical conditioning falls into this category. 2.Stimulus–response (S–R) Learning a single response to a stimulus situation. Basic forms of operant conditioning fall into this category. 3.Shaping Chaining together of two or more S–R associations. Originally termed chaining by Gagné, the text calls it shaping to avoid confusion. Chapter 3 27 Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning Types – Part 2 of 4 Learning Type 4. Verbal association 5. Multiple discrimination Description A chain of two or more verbal associations. Basically the same as shaping, but the application to language makes this a special case. Making different but appropriate responses to stimuli that differ to greater or lesser degrees. Chapter 3 28 Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning Types – Part 3 of 4 Learning Type Description 6. Concept learning Typically called generalization learning. Learning to make a common response to a group of stimuli having common characteristics or relationships but otherwise differing to greater or lesser degrees. 7. Principle learning Learning to chain two or more concepts by developing a formal, logical relation between the concepts (e.g., “if A then B” formulation). Chapter 3 29 Summary of Gagné’s Eight Learning Types – Part 4 of 4 Learning Type 8. Problem solving Description Learning to combine two or more previously learned principles to produce a novel (to the learner) capability reflecting a higher-order principle. Chapter 3 30 Classical Conditioning Process STEP 1 Unconditional Stimulus (Meat Powder) Unconditioned Response (Salivation) STEP 2 Conditional Stimulus paired with Unconditioned Stimulus (Buzzer followed closely in time, over many trials, by meat powder) STEP 3 Unconditioned Response (Salivation) Conditional Stimulus (Buzzer alone) Conditioned Response (Salivation) Chapter 3 31 Machinist’s Behavior Patterns before and after Modification Machinist’s Initial Behavior Begin work Break Work Lunch Work Leave Work Clean Work Break Machinist’s Modified Behavior Begin work Clean Break Work Clean Lunch Leave work Clean Work Break Clean Work Chapter 3 32 Supervisor Behavior Patterns Recommended for Two Levels of Two Environmental Stimuli Subordinate Need for Independence Task Structure High Low High Low initiating structure High participation Low initiating structure Low participation Low High initiating structure High participation High initiating structure Low participation Chapter 3 33 The Cognitive Processes Involved in Social Learning EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT Stimuli Stimuli Stimuli Stimuli A T T E N T I O N Learner's Cognitive Processes MOTIVATION RETENTION 1. Symbolic Coding 2. Cognitive Organization 3. Symbolic Rehearsal Behavioral Consequences of Behavior Chapter 3 Reproduction 34 Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction – Part 1 of 2 Instructional Event It gets the trainee to: 1. Gaining attention Focus on trainer 2. Informing the trainee of Goal (objective) Begin focusing on the goal 3. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge (learning) Bring prior learning into working memory 4. Presenting the material Selectively perceive important parts of training 5. Providing learning guidance To consider how the training fits into her overall schema, and facilitate retrieval Chapter 3 35 Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction – Part 2 of 2 Instructional Event It gets the trainee to: 6. Eliciting the performance Do it (practice) 7. Providing feedback Perform effectively by reinforcing correct responses and assisting when incorrect 8. Assessing performance Engage in a number of similar activities to determine how well she has mastered the learning 9. Enhancing retention and transfer Engage in more complex and varied examples of the concept(s) and assess the success Chapter 3 36 Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 1 of 5 Learning objective: Given a drawing of a plot of land, the student will generate a plan for a sprinkler system that will cover at least 90% of the land, using the least amount of materials (PVC pipe and sprinkler heads). Event Media Prescription 1. Gaining attention Live instruction and overhead projector Rapidly show pictures of sprinkler coverage of a plot of land that has highly successful (90%) and one of unsuccessful (70%) coverage, and one using too many sprinkler heads, inviting attention to their differences. 2. Inform the learner of the objective Same The problem: Design the most efficient sprinkler system covering at least 90% of the ground using the least amount of pipe and sprinkler heads. Chapter 3 37 Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 2 of 5 Event Media Prescription 3. Stimulate recall of requisites Overhead projector Ask the learners recall applicable rules. Since the sprinkler heads they will use spray in circles and partial circles, rules to be recalled are the area of :(1) a circle, (2) quarter and half circles, (3) rectanguls, and (4) irregular shapes (intersection of circular arcs with straight sides). 4. Presenting the Same stimulus material Restate the problem in general terms, and then add specific details: 1) rectangular lot 50 by 100 ft; 2) radius of the sprinklers, 5 ft; 3) water source in the center of the lot. Chapter 3 38 Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 3 of 5 Event Media Prescription 5. Providing learning Overhead The student will need to design and guidance projector tentative sprinkler layouts, draw them out, and calculate the relative efficiency of each. Guidance may be And given by informing the learner of options if rules are not being applied 6. Eliciting correctly. For example, “Could you performance get more efficient coverage in the corner by using a quarter-circle sprinkler head?” Or “It looks like you have a lot of overlap; are you allowing for a 10% non-coverage?”. Chapter 3 39 Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 4 of 5 Event Media Prescription 7. Providing feedback Oral review by instructor Confirm good moves, when in a suitable direction. If the learner doesn’t see a possible solution, suggestions may be made. For example, “Why don’t you draw four circles that barely touch, calculate the area, then draw a rectangle around the circles and calculate the area of coverage to see how much you have?” 8. Assessing performance Teacher Present a different problem using the same type of sprinkler, with different lot shape and size. Check the efficiency of the student’s solution in terms of coverage and amount of materials used. Chapter 3 40 Example of a Lesson in Problem Solving – Part 5 of 5 Event Media 9. Enhancing retention and transfer Worksheet Prescription Present several different problems varying in shape of lot, position of the water source, and area a of sprinkler coverage. Assess the generalizability of student problem solving to these new situations Chapter 3 41 Exercise In discussion groups of 4 – 6, identify differences among you that would impact the kind of training you would prefer. Use Table 3-7 on p. 108, but don’t limit it to only these characteristics. What accounts for the differences and similarities in your group. Chapter 3 42 Table 3-7 Instrumentality, desire for immediate applicability of material Skepticism, need for logic, evidence, and examples Resistance to change, fear of unknown or personal consequences of change related to feelings of self-efficacy and locus of control Attention span, amount of time before attentiveness is substantially diminished Expectation level, quality/quantity requirements of training Dominant needs, intrinsic and extrinsic motivators Absorption level, pace expected and can absorb the material Topical interest, personal interest in the material Chapter 3 43