Download Biology booklet 2

MIDDLETOWN HIGH
SCHOOL SOUTH
BIOLOGY
BOOKLET 2
NAME: _________________________________
CLASS: _____________
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
The Evolution of Man
 Describe what a hominid is.
 Describe why discovering Lucy was important to evolutionary biology.
 Understand and describe the difference between the terms evidence
and inference.
 Be able to make inferences based on evidence presented to you.
 Understand that the fossil record can identify what organisms are the
oldest and youngest.
 Understand that strata or layers can help to identify the age of fossils
based on their position in the strata.
 Give an example of an organism that has evolved over a long time
period and discuss the changes that have occurred.
 Define a homologous structure and explain its significance in
evolutionary terms.
 Define a vestigial structure and explain its significance in evolutionary
terms.
 Explain the significance of a common embryonic origin.
 Describe the term adaptation.
 Understand and describe the term adaptive radiation.
 Describe the term species.
 Describe how those organisms best suited to their environment will
survive and be able to reproduce.
 Describe what natural selection is.
 Give examples of organisms have undergone natural selection.
 Give an example of the high speed evolution of organisms such as
antibiotic resistant bacteria and the black peppered moth.
 Describe the term selective breeding.
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 Understand the difference between natural selection and selective
breeding.
 Be able to draw conclusions from data in experiments
 Give examples of organisms that have been selectively bred
 Understand the economic significance of selective breeding to humans
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The Evolution of Man – Finding Lucy
Your teacher will show you a short movie clip

Hominids are erect-walking primates that include modern humans,
earlier human species and early human-like species.

Evidence refers to information / data / physical objects that prove or
disprove something.

Inference refers to conclusions that follow logically from direct
evidence.

Lucy is the name of the nearly complete skeleton of an
Australopithecus afarensis.

She was the first nearly complete skeleton recovered for the species,
found in1974 in the Afar Triangle of Ethiopia.

Lucy is about 3.18 million years old and is not the only early hominid
found at Hadar. Many more A. afarensis hominids were found in the
local area.

Lucy's skeleton was clearly different from other primates. Her knees
were able to lock, her femur slanted inward and her large toe was in
line with her other toes, allowing her to walk upright.

The discovery of Lucy surprised palaeontologists because although
she was unquestionably bipedal, she was remarkably apelike -- with a
brain about the size of a chimpanzee's.
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Why do we study bones?

Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present. Biological
(Physical) anthropologists seek to understand how humans adapt to
diverse environments.

In addition, they are interested in human biological origins, evolution
and variation. They give primary attention to investigating questions
having to do with evolutionary theory, our place in nature, adaptation
and human biological variation.

To understand these processes, biological anthropologists study other
primates (primatology), the fossil record (paleoanthropology),
prehistoric people (bioarchaeology), and the biology (e.g., health,
cognition, hormones, growth and development) and genetics of living
populations.
Task 1: Understanding the role of a physical anthropologist.
In this activity you will be comparing the bones of a modern human and
a modern chimpanzee with unknown bones.
1. Study carefully the bones for all three animals.
2. List each Mystery bone in the table below.
3. Complete the table by writing down if you think each Mystery bone is
more like human bone, more like chimpanzee bone or not like either.
Mystery Bones
Primate Comparisons
Tick() the appropriate box and give a reason for your
selection
 Human
Jaw
 Primate
 Human
Pelvis
 Primate
 Human
Femur
 Primate
 Human
Foot
 Primate
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4. Based on your observations in the table, what is a reasonable
inference about how the mystery fossil bones might have related to
humans or chimpanzees? Explain your answer.
Inference______________________________________________________
Reason _______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Chimpanzee
Unknown
Human
Pelvis
Femur
Foot
Jaw
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The Role of the Paleontologist

Paleontologists study the forms of life exisiting in prehistoric or geologic
times, as represented by fossils of plants, animals and other
organisms.

Strata – geologists use an indirect method of dating rocks and fossils
called stratigraphy. Stratigraphy is the study of strata on Earth. Strata
are layers.
Task 2: Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
1. Which layer is the oldest and why?
2. These strata are layers of the Earth’s surface. What can you deduce
about the relationship of the depth of the layer and how much time has
passed?
3. Label the strata diagram to show the oldest to youngest layers.
The horse
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
One of the few animals
for which we have a
fairly complete
evolutionary record is
the horse. All the main
stages of the evolution
of the horse have been
preserved in fossil
form.

Over 60 million years,
the horse evolved
from a dog-sized
creature that lived in
rainforests into an
animal adapted to
living on the plains and
standing up to 2 metres
high.

In the process its multitoed feet, that were
adapted for walking
across the forest floor,
evolved into singletoed hooves more
suited for running over
open country.
Task 3: Study the diagram above and answer the questions that follow.
The diagram shows the evolution of the horse over the last 60
million years. List 5 ways that the body has changed over time.
1. ________________________________________________________
2. ________________________________________________________
3. ________________________________________________________
4. ________________________________________________________
5. ________________________________________________________
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Homologous structures

Homologous structures are structures derived from a common
ancestor or same evolutionary or developmental origin.

Homologous structures may not necessarily perform the same function
but they share a common ancestral origin.

For example, the forelimbs of humans and bats are homologous
structures. Although they are used differently, the basic skeletal
structure is the same and they are derived from the same embryonic
origin.

Their similarity in this regard could indicate a likely evolution from a
common ancestor.
Task 4: Study the diagram above and answer the questions that follow.
1. Name two similarities between the above structures
2. Name two differences between the above structures
3. Explain why the bat wing is similar to the human hand. Use the
diagram above to help you explain this.
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5. Using the key at the side of each diagram to help you, colour in each part
of the animal limbs in different colours. Do you notice any similarities?
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Developmental Biology

Embryology is a branch of developmental biology that focuses on the
early development of organisms before they are born or hatched.

These developing organisms are known as embryos.

Embryology is particularly useful in studying organisms that can be
grouped together as having a common ancestor and therefore finds
out more about their evolutionary past.
Task 5: Study the diagram above and answer the questions that follow.
1. Using different coloured pens / pencils / highlighters, group together
the organisms that you think share a common ancestor.
2. What do you think embryo similarities tell scientists about how closely
organisms are related?
3. Complete the sentence by underlining the correct word.
The
longer
ththat the embryos of two animals remain the same the
shorter
more
less
recently they shared a common ancestor.
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Vestigial Structures

Vestigial structures refer to organs or parts of organs which are
greatly reduced from the original ancestral form and are no longer
functional or are of reduced or altered function. E.g. the human
appendix.

Vestigial structures provide a clue to the evolutionary history of a
species because they are remnants of structures found in the ancestral
species.
Your teacher will show you a short movie clip from a documentary
called “Inside Nature’s Giants”
HOME RESEARCH TASK
Task 6: Study the diagrams below and answer the questions that follow.
1. The diagrams below describe vestigial structures in humans. Explain
why these organs are considered vestigial and what their purpose was
in the evolutionary past.
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2. Give two further examples of vestigial structures from different
organisms that have not been discussed in class.
3. For the vestigial structures that you found, give their use in the
evolutionary past.
DNA Evidence for Evolution
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) codes for proteins that your body needs to live.
Two of those proteins are the alpha and beta hemoglobin proteins that occur
in your blood. These proteins carry oxygen and carbon dioxide as they
circulate in your bloodstream.
Other animals’ blood also contains α and β hemoglobin proteins. However,
not all of these proteins are identical. The differences between α and β
hemoglobin proteins are caused by differences in the DNA that codes for
them.
One reason why developmental biologists are interested in comparing the
DNA and proteins of organisms is to learn about relatedness.
The more similar two organisms’ DNA are, the more likely it is that the
organisms are closely related.
Process and Procedures
The following sequences of letters stand for the DNA bases from portions of
the genes that code for alpha and beta hemoglobin proteins.
1. Compare the DNA sequences from the α
primates. Calculate the percent for how similar the bush baby α
DNA sequence is to Homo sapiens.
% similar = (numb. DNA bases the same ÷ total numb. DNA bases) × 100
2. Compare the DNA sequences from the β hemoglobin of four different
primates. Calculate the percent for how similar each β
DNA
sequence is to Homo sapiens.
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Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution
Your teacher will show you a short movie clip on Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin was born on February 12, 1809
in Shrewsbury, England. Darwin was born on the
same day as Abraham Lincon. He was the
British naturalist who became famous for his
theories of evolution and natural selection.

Like several scientists before him, Darwin
believed that all life on Earth evolved (gradually
developed) over millions of years from a few
common ancestors.

The book that Darwin published based on his
experiences and an observation of various living
organisms was titled “The Origin of Species By
Means of Natural Selection” (1872). This

Charles Darwin visited the Galapagos Islands and recorded his
findings about the different species of finch.

He found that:
o On each Island, the landscape and food source for the finches
was different;
o The finches had adapted to their environment by changing their
body size and beak shape so that they could eat food and
survive;
o This resulted in 13 different species being formed over millions
of years.

An adaptation is a feature of an organism which enables it to survive
successfully in its habitat.

A species describes organisms that can successfully interbreed to
produce fertile offspring.
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The diagram below illustrates how the finches of the Galapagos Islands
adapted to suit their environment. Discuss this with your class before you go
onto the next activity.
Study the diagram above. Discuss what this tells you about the evolutionary
process. What conclusions can you come to about all of these finches?
Scientists often use the term “adaptive radiation” when talking about the
evolution of new species. What do you think this term means? Research this
phrase and write down the definition in the space provided.
Adaptive radiation : organisms changing slowly to form new species that are
well suited to their new environment so that they survive and can breed.
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Task 7: Your teacher will demonstrate an experiment illustrating the
adaptations of finches to suit their environments. You will then carry
out this experiment yourself.
Table 1
Name of person with this “beak” type
Finch 1: Large Spoon
Finch 2: Knife
Finch 3: Tweezers
Finch 4: Fork
Table 2
Finch 1
White beans
Yellow
beans
White seeds
Green
beans
TOTAL
number of
food
particles
collected
55
2
1
0
58
Finch 2
Finch 3
Finch 4
Total
Average
Task 8: Complete the following questions.
1. Write down a summary of what you learned from this activity. What did
it show you about adaptations?
2. From your data in the table, which bird would have survived? Give a
reason for your answer.
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Adaptations in the cactus plant

The desert is a hot, dry environment where water is in limited supply.

Cactus plants have adapted to this environment by employing the
following mechanisms:
o Leaves have been reduced to spines to limit water loss via
evaporation because of the smaller surface area.
o Root network is extensive to absorb water when it does rain.
o The green stem of the plant has a thick, waxy cuticle to reduce
water loss.
o The stems and leaves are succulent and fleshy to store water.
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Natural Selection
•
All individuals in a species are different from each other in subtle ways
- some possess a physical appearance (phenotype) better suited to
their environment.
•
It is more likely that organisms with these phenotypes will survive to
maturity and reproduce.
Light coloured beetles
•
When there is very little environmental pressure, organisms produce
more offspring than their environment can support.
•
Predation, competition, overcrowding and disease resistance will limit
the number of offspring surviving to maturity. This keeps the
population in check.
•
The offspring that survive these environmental
pressures often resemble their parents.
•
Beneficial characteristics are passed on to
offspring e.g. Ability to hide from predators.
•
The population in the species that lacks this
beneficial characteristic will get smaller and
smaller as they die off.
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•
This process of organisms with favourable characteristics
living and those with unfavourable characteristics
dying is repeated generation after generation.
•
Organisms with the more favourable phenotype
are “selected” and survive.
•
These organisms eventually become
predominate in the population.
•
This is known as SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST
Summary
Variation in characteristics
Environmental pressures.
Only those with favourable characteristics
survive.
Inheritance.
Favourable characteristics
passed on to offspring.
Organisms with most favourable
characteristics predominant in
environment.
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
Natural selection is the process by which only organisms best
adapted their environment survive and transmit their genetic
characteristics in increasing numbers to their offspring while those less
well adapted tend to become eliminated.
Examples of Natural Selection - The Peppered Moth

Before the industrial revolution in Britain, most peppered moths were of
the pale variety. This meant that they were camouflaged against the
pale birch trees that they rest on.

Moths with a mutant black colouring were easily spotted and eaten by
birds. This gave the white variety an advantage, and they were more
likely to survive to reproduce.

Airborne pollution in industrial areas blackened the birch tree bark with
soot. This meant that the mutant black moths were now camouflaged,
while the white variety became more vulnerable to predators.

This gave the black variety an advantage, and they were more likely to
survive and reproduce.

Over time, the black peppered moths became far more numerous in
urban areas than the pale variety.
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Task 9: Your teacher will take you through a computer simulation of the
peppered moth story.
Data and Analysis of Moth Simulation
1. Complete the data table below for both types of moth after running the
simulation.
Percentage of
Light Moths
Percentage of
Dark Moths
Light Forest
Dark Forest
Present this information in the form of a bar graph on the grid below:
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2. Explain how the colour of the moths increases or decreases their chances
of survival in the different environments.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Explain the concept of "natural selection" using your moths as an example.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
4. What would happen if there were no predators in the forest? Would the
colours of the moths change over time? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
HOME LEARNING TASK
Task 10: Using the information that you have learned in class and other
resources available to you, create a story board of the story of the peppered
moth. Your story board should include both words and pictures to illustrate
what happened to both moths during the industrial revolution. You should
also include the phrase “natural selection”.
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Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Microorganisms such as bacteria and
viruses reproduce very rapidly and
can evolve in a relatively short time.

One example is the bacterium E. coli.
Its DNA can be damaged or changed
during replication, and most of the
time this causes the death of the cell.
But occasionally, the mutation is
beneficial - for the bacteria.

For example, it may allow resistance to an antibiotic. When that
antibiotic is present, the resistant bacteria have an advantage over the
bacteria that are not resistant. This is another example of natural
selection.

Antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria are an increasing problem in
hospitals.
Selective Breeding
Your teacher will show you a short video on selective breeding in the
Belgian blue cow
•
Selective breeding is the deliberate selection by humans of organisms
which have some benefit to mankind.
•
Organisms with desirable characteristics are chosen to breed
•
Undesirable organisms are not permitted to breed. This is therefore
NOT a natural process.
•
Characteristics which are often bred for include:
• Increased milk yield in dairy cows.
• Increased beef yield in cattle.
• Increased disease resistance in crop plants.
• Increased yield in crop plants.
Disadvantages of Selective Breeding
•
Selective breeding takes a relatively long period of time.
•
Results are not always guaranteed as there will always be some
variation in the offspring.
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INTERNET RESEARCH TASK
Task 11: Selective breeding is a practice that has been going on for
thousands of years. As a result, we now have many different varieties of
organisms.
Your task is to get into groups assigned by your teacher and research and
present an organism that has been selectively bred.
The list that you may choose from is given below:
Selectively bred organisms:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dogs
Cabbage
Carrots
Cows
Wheat
Horses
In this research task, the points that you need to cover are:




Why this organism is selectively bred?
Is this practice adopted all over the world or just in the USA?
How long as selective breeding been going on?
Are there any interesting facts about this organism and its selective
breeding?
Your teacher will now show you a documentary about selective breeding
and genetic engineering.
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Testing Your Knowledge
1. Evolution is the process of the:
a. Development of one-celled organisms from mammals
b. Change in species over long periods of time
c. Embryonic development of modern humans
d. Changing energy flow in food webs
2. The table below shows the amino acid sequence I the same part of
haemoglobin molecule of five different mammal species.
Comparison of Haemoglobin in Five Mammals
Mammal species
Sequence in Amino Acids in a
Section of the Molecule
Human
Horse
Gorilla
Chimpanzee
Zebra
Lys-Glu-His-Iso
Arg-Lys-His-Lys
Lys-Glu-His-Lys
Lys-Glu-His-Iso
Arg-Lys-His-Arg
According to the information provided, the closest evolutionary
relationship most likely exists between the:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Human and the chimpanzee
Human and the gorilla
Chimpanzee and the gorilla
Horse and the zebra
3. Which statement is the basic theory of evolution by nautral selection?
a. In general, living organisms maintain a constant population from
generation to generation
b. Changes in living organisms are almost completely the result of
mutations
c. Natural variations are inherited
d. There is little competition between species.
4. Evolution could not occur without genetic variations. These variations
will not be acted upon by natural selection unless they
a.
b.
c.
d.
Produce unfavourable characteristics
Produce favourable characteristics
Are found in the fossil record
Affect the organisms’ appearance or functioning
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5. Mutations can be transmitted to the next generation if they are present
in
a.
b.
c.
d.
Horomones
Gametes
Body cells
Muscle cells
6. In most populations, the individuals that produce the greatest number
of offspring are
a.
b.
c.
d.
Always the strongest
Usually the best adapted
Those that have only inheritable traits
Those that are the most intelligent
7. The sudden appearance of a light-coloured moth in a large population
of dark-coloured moths was probably the result of
a.
b.
c.
d.
A mutation
Random mating
Non-random mating
Isolation of the moth population
8. Which of the following could be used as evidence to show that two
different species of organisms most likely developed from a single
common ancestor?
a.
b.
c.
d.
They eat the same type of food
They have different digestive enzymes
They lived during the same time period
They contain similar amino acid sequences
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9. The Peppered moth is found throughout Great Britain.
The diagram shows the dark and light varieties of the Peppered moth.
The table below shows the percentage distribution of each body colour at
three locations.
Location
% Distribution
Industrial City Centre
City Outskirts
Dark
80
60
Light
20
40
Unpolluted Countryside
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(a) In moving from the city to the countryside, state one trend shown in the
table.
________________________________________________________
(b) Complete the bar graph using the percentage distribution figures for
both the dark and light moths in unpolluted countryside.
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9 (continued)
(c)
Predict what would happen to the percentage distribution of the light
coloured moths if factories and roads were built in the unpolluted
countryside.
Tick (√) the correct box.
Increase
Decrease
Stay the same
(d)
Underline one option in each pair to make the following sentence
correct.
The variation in Peppered moth distribution is an example of
(biodiversity / natural selection) since the (better / less well)
adapted moths survive and breed.
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