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Chopin's Integrative Technique
And its Repercussions for 20th-Century Polish Music
Andrzej Tuchowski
While looking through the 19th-century literature on Chopin one can hardly find
an opinion denying Chopin's music its originality, imaginative fantasy and
emotional power. On the other hand one can hardly find a favourable critical
assessment of Chopin's constructive abilities - especially as far as large-scale
structural designs are concerned. In fact, an opinion prevailed among 19thcentury critics that Chopin's large-scale musical construction lacked consistency
and tended to disintegrate under the overwhelming pressure of romantic
inspiration and undisciplined fantasy. This opinion, foreign to such musical
authorities as Schumann and Liszt, was shared by the most influential critics and
writers on music of that time: Hanslick (1869-1970), Niecks (1888), Hunecker
(1900), Shedlock (1895), and Bie (1898).[1] In some cases the criticism of
Chopin's ostensible structural inabilities was voiced in a somewhat -sharper tone.
Hadow, for example, in his Studies in Modern Music (1892) accused Chopin of
what could be described as "structural infantilism" by claiming that "in structure
he [Chopin] is a child, playing with a few simple types, and almost helpless as
soon as he advances beyond them."[2] Fifteen years later quite a similar
objection was put forward by D'Indy who described Chopin's op.58 as a "childish
sketch," which in spite of its undeniable beauties stands far away from the
"admirable monuments of the order and harmony" discernible in works of Bach
and Beethoven.[3]
The stereotypical, one-sided image of Chopin as a master of the miniature or as
an over-emotional, undisciplined romantic was overcome in the second and third
decades of the 20th century with the emergence of new music theories and
analytical approaches (e.g. Leichtentritt 1922; Schenker 1935).[4] Since then,
generations of analysts of various theoretical orientations have been contributing
to the gradually expanding knowledge about the latent structural logic in Chopin's
works. In consequence, the long-neglected intellectual aspect of Chopin's music
("intellectual" in the sense that its discovery requires the application of analytical
methods) has been brought to the foreground - thus making the contemporary
image of this composer much different from the one inherited from the previous
century. It seems that a significant element of this new image is based on the
growing esteem for Chopin as a "prophet" of certain 20th-century compositional
techniques. Karol Szymanowski was probably the first to turn his attention to this
very aspect of Chopin's oeuvre when he labelled Chopin a "musical futurist of the
romantic epoch"(1923).[5] Szymanowski's opinion was confirmed by subsequent
scholars (e.g. Lissa 1970, Nikolska 1987) mainly in respect to Chopin's harmonic
and textural innovations and his dramatic-formal designs which, according to
Nikolska, probably influenced some Polish 20th-century composers.[6]
In the present study I would like to point out another "futuristic" aspect of
Chopin's œuvre: structural coherence understood as a latent logic of the unity in
multiplicity. Studies of transformational changes in Chopin's style (c.f. Gołąb
1993, Tuchowski 1996) reveal that structural coherence achieved by means of
motivic-cellular connections (which belong to the "foreground" type of integrative
links) reaches its high point in Chopin's music during the early 1830s and
remains more or less the same later on, with the exception of a "post-romantic
turning point" in the early 1840s.[7] On the other hand, the same research
indicates a growing role of integrative techniques in the structural background of
the music as Chopin's style progressed towards its full maturity. Indeed, in some
works written about the year 1835 and after that date, one can find astonishingly
strict, ingenious structural designs, something which could be hardly expected
from a romanticist who was commonly considered a master of imaginative
fantasy and emotional power.
The purpose of the present study is to highlight a certain integrative technique
(one of the many utilized by Chopin) which anticipates the 20th century
"constructivism" - thus providing a bridge between the 19th-century concept of
"organicism" and structural designs that function in post-tonal music. I shall call
this particular device the INTEGRATIVE PITCH-AXIS TECHNIQUE; it relies on
far-reaching aural capabilities of the listeners, the "Fernhoeren" - as Heinrich
Schenker would have put it. This technique, signalled in the Mazurka Op. 6, No.
1 (1830-32) and in the Mazurka Op. 17, No. 3(1833) appears in its fully-fledged
shape in the Nocturnes Op. 27 (1835). Let us, then, commence the analysis from
the Nocturne in C-sharp minor op. 27, no. 1.
As the following graph indicates, in the melodic line of section A there are some
pitches of a special structural prominence. A closer scrutiny reveals that these
are "border pitches" (or "nodal points") of the melodic motion. "C-sharp" and "Gsharp" limit the expansion of the motion in both directions, up and down. It is
interesting that these nodal points of the motion design are given a strong
emphasis by means of texture, sonority and dynamics, as if Chopin wanted these
particular pitches to be well remembered. Another proof of their perceptual and
structural significance can be found in the two-bar introduction with its motiontrajectory limited to these very pitches. Certainly this particular gesture helps to
fix the two pitches in the mind of the listener (see Example 1 below, or
a larger
image).
Example 1: Nocturne, Op. 27, no. 1. Captions in the upper system:
"Part A" [top left], "the axis of symmetry" [below], "extreme point of the contour of motion" [top right],
"the measure of the progression" [downward arrow]. Captions in the lower system:
"part B, m. 29" [top left], "fundamental tones of the main keys" [bottom right].
Captions in the third system: "the basic structural cell permeating the background level
(the tonal plan of the piece" [top right], "the beginning of intervallic structures" [bottom right].
As the graph suggests, there is yet another pitch, "E," that appears to have
structural significance. This pitch initiates the melodic line and functions as a sort
of "symmetry axis" for the design of the melodic motion ("a sort of" since the
distance between "C-sharp" and "E" is not equal to the distance between "E" and
"G-sharp." We have to keep in mind, however, that this construction is adapted to
the requirements of the tonal system.) Therefore, there are two main pitch axes,
"C-sharp" and "G-sharp," as well as one subsidiary pitch axis, "E." Needless to
say, together they form the tonic triad of C-sharp minor. In measure 29, when the
contrasting section B starts, we can discern a phenomenon described by Felix
Salzer in 1970 as "a heightened drive" upwards, towards "G-sharp."[8] As it
follows from the graph, the progressions which start at bar 29 are organized in
such a way that both pitches "C-sharp" and "G-sharp" receive a strong emphasis.
What happens next is even more interesting: the trajectory of the modulatory
passage is strictly controlled by the pitch axes of the previous section. Therefore,
up to the return of section A we find the following tonal centres: "E" (m. 46), "Aflat" (m. 49) - an enharmonic equivalent of "G-sharp" - and "D-flat" (= C-sharp)
which enters in m. 65. In terms of statistical distribution, the tonal centres
equivalent to the pitch axes of "C-sharp" and "G-sharp" predominate. At the
same time, in sections B and C of the Nocturne the pitch-axis "E" continues to
have a subsidiary role.
Generally speaking, the structural background design of the Nocturne, Op. 27,
No. 1 articulates Chopin's way of using the integrative technique discussed here.
As one may notice in the graph, this technique (at least in the case of the
Nocturne, Op.27, No. 1) is fully adapted to the requirements of the tonal system.
The nodal points of the pitch motion design in section A coincide with the root
and the fifth of the tonic chord, i.e. with the pillars of the "Naturklang" in
Schenker's terminology. Nonetheless, such a conjunction of pitch axes with tonal
elements is not a general rule. In the Nocturne, Op. 27, No. 2, for example, we
may discern an attempt to separate the network of the integrative pitch axes from
the set of pitches, the structural importance of which depends on the laws of the
tonal system. Since the form of this Nocturne has been based on the alternation
of two contrasting musical thoughts, the integrative links connecting the first
projection of these ideas are taken into account in the following diagram (see
Example 2 below, or
a larger image).
Example 2: Nocturne, Op. 27, No. 2. Captions in the first system: numbers 3-2-1 [left, top],
"Chopin passage" [under first 4 pitches, left, bottom], "lower oscillations
of the contour of motion emphasized by rhythm" [center-right, bottom],
"hidden chromatic line" [right, bottom]. Second system: "m. 10," numbers 3=5, 2=4, 1=3
[left, top]. Third system: "m. 14." Fourth system: "m. 18" [left, top],
"pitches designating highest nodal points of the contour of motion."
The nodal points of the melodic pitch motion design have been beamed above
the upper stave; these points articulate moments of change of direction of motion
and the highest points in pitch contours. With the exception of the initial "F" which
constitutes the head-note of the "Chopin passage" (descending, beamed group)
none of these pitches belong to the set of pitches, whose structural importance
stems from tonal harmony. Moreover, while the "B-flat" in m. 4 receives a strong
emphasis by means of dynamics, duration and sonority, the pitch "C" passes
almost unnoticed (hence its graphic representation in brackets). As if to
compensate for the harmonic weakness of these pitches and to make sure that
they will be remembered by the listener, both of these pitches are repeated an
octave lower, functioning as the terminal points of the octave progressions
(indicated by downward beamings on the upper stave). The graph illustrates that
exactly the same pitches open the successive stages of melodic progression in
the contrasting theme, with the pitch class "G-flat" assigned a dramatic role of the
climactic point of tension (note that the high "G-flat" continues to serve in this
climactic role throughout the piece, for instance in mm. 42-45 and 57). It is
striking that the integrative pitch axes are emphasized by all possible means exactly as in the Nocturne, Op. 27, No. 1. Therefore, one may safely assume that
the connections indicated above do not result from a coincidence.
Indeed, Chopin's Opus 27 marks the peak of structural coherence in the genre of
the nocturne: the discussed technique may be found in its complete form only in
the works from Opus 27. Other nocturnes are structurally integrated by means of
more or less complicated networks of motivic-cellular links which are typical for
19th-century organicism and, as such, are not discussed here. However, after
completing the composition of Opus 27, Chopin apparently decided to apply the
pitch axis technique to larger forms. The most interesting example is provided by
his second Scherzo, in B-flat minor,, Op. 31 (1837) where the pitch axes are
used independently from a sophisticated network of motivic-cellular integrative
links. The prominent role of the pitch "F" in the structuring of motion in the first
exposition (up to m. 262) has been pointed out by many analysts of various
methodological orientations (Schenker 1935, Eibner 1960, Kinderman 1988).[9]
Let us note that this pitch provides a destination point for all the phrases, all the
linear progressions up to measure 34. In m. 46 "F" closes the first section of the
main theme, then it provides the starting point of the second theme (m. 49). In m.
65 the same pitch initiates the lyric theme; here, the melodic line extends
between the initial "F2" and the final "F2," with "F3" serving as a peak within the
trajectory of motion. Generally, one may say that all the nodal points in this
section's structural-formal design are marked by the pitch axis "F."
Interestingly, the closure of the first exposition coincides with the end of the
integrative role of the pitch axis "F;" afterwards a new axis - "D-flat" - emerges. In
m. 262 this pitch axis is enharmonically transformed into the "C-sharp," thus
serving as an integrative force which brings together sections in distant key
areas. In the second exposition, this new axis plays exactly the same role as the
former axis in the first exposition. In m. 299, however, the pitch axis "D-flat" is
simultaneously "pushed" - so to speak - in both directions: a perfect fifth upward
and a perfect fourth downwards (this may be seen as an analogy to the
concentric motion of the first theme). As a result, a new pitch-axis, "G-sharp," is
created. In the following segment of the piece, a sort of "interplay" between both
axes may be seen: a brief return to "C-sharp" in m. 317 is followed by a return of
"G-sharp" in a brilliant, virtuoso segment, based on the "Chopin passage" (m.
334). The stormy and unstable - as far as tonality is concerned - developmental
section of the Scherzo brings in a suspension of all pitch axes. Nevertheless,
when we look at the starting points of the successive stages of the development
we can discern a striking regularity: most of these segments begin with strongly
emphasized pitch classes that have, so far, served as the integrative axes. The
developmental section of the Scherzo (m. 476) starts with a highlight on the pitch
class "C-sharp." The beginning of the next segment (m. 516-517) features an
emphasis on "G-sharp" (i.e. "A-flat") while the final segment of the development
starts with a high "D-flat" (m. 544) and ends with a strongly exposed "F" (m. 580582). The recapitulation brings back all the tonal and structural relations of the
first exposition.
More interesting phenomena, however, are discernible in the concluding section
of the piece. The coda serves as a kind of a "resume" of the all pitch axes
encountered throughout the piece. The following pitches create strongly exposed
nodal points in the design of melodic motion in this section: "C-sharp" in mm.
716, 720, "F" in m. 724, "A-flat" in mm. 732-747 and "F" from m. 756 to the end of
the piece. It is significant that the final chord of the Scherzo is a D-flat major triad
with its third, i.e. the pitch "F," in the treble position. It is also worth noting that all
the pitch axes, that are so consistently recapitulated in the coda, add up to together with their enharmonic equivalents - the D-flat major triad, i.e. the tonic
chord of the key which has been described by many analysts as predominating in
this work (Schenker 1935, Eibner 1960, Gołąb 1991, Samson 1988, Kinderman
1988). [10]
As mentioned, the pitch-axis technique appears in the Scherzo in B-flat minor
quite independently from the foreground net of motivic-cellular connections. In
the next analytical example (i.e. Chopin's Sonata in B-flat minor; 1837-39) both
integrative aspects of the structure are closely interrelated. During the eighty
years since the first serious analytical studies of the structural logic in this
astonishing work had been undertaken (Leichtentritt 1922), successive
generations of analysts have examined aspects of structural coherence in the
work that was so frequently criticised by 19th-century theorists for its apparent
lack of unity. Here, we should only mention the facts that have a certain
significance for the present study. Most modern analysts point out that the
Funeral March had been composed before other movements of the Sonata and
that it should be considered a source of thematic ideas for the whole work.
Undoubtedly, it is true - Alan Walker (1967) found such thematic relationships in
the first and the third movements; such findings have been confirmed by other
analysts (Leikin 1992, Bollinger 1981, Helman 1993). [11] The present study's
focus on the perceptive rather than the creative aspects of the music requires
that we survey the Sonata in its entirety from its first notes onwards. Let us start
from the introduction. It contains three closely interconnected structural ideas:
1. the "embryonic" progression of minor thirds "B-flat - D-flat" = "C-sharp E" (it seems possible that the enharmonic change serves to emphasize
the relation of the minor third)
2. the intervallic cell consisting of a minor third followed by a minor second
(marked on the following graph as an "X") which is of crucial importance
for the thematic material in the whole Sonata (it provides a significant
integrative element in the foreground)
3. two pitch axes: "B-flat" and "D-flat" (a significant integrative element in
the background)
Example 3: Sonata in B-flat minor.
Captions in the first system: Top: m. 9, 11-12, 15, 16.
Middle: "transformation X", bottom "3m" i.e. "minor third."
Captions in the second system. Top: "m. 17, m. 18-20, m. 21," "anticipation of the theme," m. 25.
Middle: "3m" [minor third], "inter-version X;" Bottom: "3m" [minor third].
The structural importance of the interval of the minor third and its
inversions/variants is striking. The diagram in Example 3 (on the left, or
a
larger image) indicates the presence of the minor third in the nodal points of the
motion trajectory of the first theme (i.e. its melodic line and the bass). The nodal
points in the trajectory of motion of the highest voice of the texture consist of
three elements: two overlapping minor thirds, "B-flat - D-flat" and "A - C," plus
another minor third "E-flat - G-flat." The bass line features a different set of minor
thirds: "B-flat - D-flat" and "E - G." It is striking that two overlapping minor thirds,
"F - A-flat" and "E-flat - G-flat" constitute a frame for the head motive in the
second theme (see Example 4 below, or
a larger image).
Example 4: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "3m" [minor third].
In addition, the minor third "A-flat - F" makes its imprint on the framework of the
trajectory of pitch motion in the core of this theme (see Example 5 below, or
a
larger image).
Example 5: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: m. 40, m. 56, "recalling theme I."
The minor third as a frame of the main integrative cell X mentioned earlier (with
an emphasis on the most prominent pitches of "B-flat" and "D-flat") influences the
trajectory of motion in the first phrase of the third theme in mm. 81-84 (see
Example 6 below, or
a larger image).
Example 6: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "m. 81-84," "inter-version" [top],
"x" [between systems], "3m" twice [bottom].
In contrast, the second phrase presents a different sequence of overlapping
minor thirds (see Example 7 below, or
a larger image).
Example 7: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "3m" [minor third].
Another method of pairing minor thirds appears in the developmental section. Its
dramatic climax in measures 138-153 is based on the following pairs of chords:




G minor - B-flat minor (mm. 138-141)
F minor - A-flat major (mm. 142-145)
E minor - G major(mm. 146-153)
D major/minor - F major (mm. 150-153)
When put together, the roots of these chords (emphasized by powerful octave
doublings in the bass) constitute a familiar progression of overlapping minor
thirds, the same progression which controls the trajectory of motion in the head
sections of both main themes of this movement. Still another way of juxtaposing
minor thirds in a linear fashion underlies the frame of the main theme in the
Scherzo. Needless to say, the emphasis rests on two pitches, "B-flat" and "D-flat"
(see Example 8 below, or a larger image).
Example 8: Scherzo from Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "m. 15-16" [top], "2m" [minor second],
"3m" [minor third] and "transformation x" [bottom].
Another, rather ingenious way of turning the attention of a listener towards both
pitches appears in the central section of the Scherzo, Piu lento (see Example 9
below, or
a larger image).
Example 9: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Piu lento from the Scherzo.
While in the first movement of the Sonata both pitches control the overall tonal
design, in the second movement they determine the construction of the main
nodal points of the trajectory of motion, and in the third, i.e. the Funeral March,
they assume both roles.
In addition, here both pitches receive - as far as this Sonata is concerned - an
unprecedented emphasis by means of their obsessive repetition in the bass line.
It is interesting that the full exposure of both axes by all possible means
coincides with the dramatic climax of the Sonata brought about in the Funeral
March. When this full exposure is over, both axes are suspended and - what is
especially striking - this suspension goes hand in hand with a partial suspension
of the laws of tonality. This is exactly what we may observe in the mysterious,
enigmatic Finale, one of the most prophetic works written in the 19th century. As
it is known, this Finale posed many problems for those analysts who tried to read
it in terms of functional harmony (e.g. Riemann 1901, Leichtentritt 1922,
Bronarski 1935, Chomiński 1960, Benary 1985, Cholopow 1987).[12]
It seems, however, that we should rather take into account the standpoint of
Zofia Lissa (1970) who postulated considering the Finale in terms of 20th century
rather than 19th century compositional techniques.[13] In this context, it is worth
noting some remarks of Irina Nikolska (1987) who tried to compare Chopin's
dramatic narrative to that of Lutosławski. [14] According to Nikolska both
composers share the same reluctance to reveal "a true sense of music" before
the final stage of the work. Although Nikolska does not specifically refer to the
Sonata in B-flat minor, it seems that her remarks are directed to this particular
work. Her thesis may be applied not only to the dramatic but also to the structural
design of this Sonata. Only its Finale presents an ultimate and full realization of
the potential constructive possibilities latent in the structural "matrix" of the
introduction. In fact, there are only "enclaves" in the Finale where the laws of
tonality are unchallenged; vast stretches of musical discourse take place - so to
speak - in a tonal void. What fills this tonal vacuum? As the following graph
suggests certain INTERVALIC MOTION PATTERNS appear; these patterns are
based on progressions of the minor third, transformations of the cell "X" and on
the chromatic line. Needless to say, all these patterns result from the
multiplication of elements which constitute the structural "matrix" displayed in the
introduction. Example 10 (below, or
a larger image) illustrates how these
patterns work up to m. 8.
Example 10: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "to G-flat2, m. 5" [top], "x"
and "transformations of the cell X, till m. 8" [bottom]. "M. 8" in lower system.
The following example presents the development of the tertian patterns in mm. 8
to 11 (see Example 11 below, or
a larger image).
Example 11: Sonata in B-flat minor, cont.
Captions: "Series of minor thirds" and "m. 9", "m. 11."
In both cases the music that might be heard results from a process of
"composing out;" the deeper structural level consists of pitches indicated on both
graphs by means of beaming. This deep structural level is controlled by the
patterns which can be numerically described as: 1+3 (i.e. a minor second plus a
minor third, or their enharmonic equivalents), 1+1, or 3+3, or as a combination of
all these patterns. This intervallic structuring brings us directly to 20th-century
music. Similar intervallic patterns provide the outlines of pitch motion in certain
pieces by Karol Szymanowski. In his "Songs of Infatuated Muezzin" (1918), for
example, these patterns (as in Chopin's Sonata, Op. 35) appear as successive
stages of transformation of the structural "matrix" which is discernible in the
introductory passage to the first work of the cycle. This introduction (and, more
precisely, its melismatic invocation "Allah, Akbar") defines Szymanowski's usage
of the pitch axis technique (see Example 12 below, or
a larger image). In this
case, however, the application of integrative techniques examined in my paper
stems from their semantic dimension which results from Szymanowski's reading
of Iwaszkiewicz's poetic text. [15]
Example 12:
Szymanowski: Mm.
1-6 from the
introduction to No. 1
of Songs of
Infatuated Muezzin
(revised version).
Kraków: PWM, 1981.
Copyright 1922 by
Universal Edition
A.G., Wien.
Copyright of the
revised version 1981
by Universal Edition
A.g., Wien. All Rights
Reserved. Used by
permission of
European American
Music Distributors
LLC, sole U.S. and
Canadian agent for
Universal Edition
A.G., Vienna.
Therefore, some of the pitch axes or motion patterns refer to symbolic and
expressive subtleties of the represented world, with its interconnections between
mysticism and eroticism. A different, even more striking example of affinity with
Chopin's integrative techniques is provided by late works of Witold Lutosławski
who uses these techniques in the context of his 12-tone system, and who
endows them with an almost mathematical strictness. Let us, for example,
consider the most "romantic" passage in Lutosławski's music, the introductory
paragraph to his Fourth Symphony (see Example 13 below, or
a larger image).
Example 13: Analysis of the introduction to Lutosławski's Fourth Symphony.
Structurally speaking, the point of departure for the first section of this work is the
hexachordal aggregate consisting of minor thirds and perfect fourths. It emerges
by gradual accumulation of pitches starting from the low "E" in the bass. A closer
scrutiny allows us to separate this basic pitch from the higher pitches that create
a symmetrical intervalic structure of "5-3-3-5." This division, marked on the graph
with a brace, has repercussions for the layout of tone-colors, i.e. instruments and
instrumental groups (on the diagram, the significant events in this segment are
marked by vertical arrows).
Thus, the initial sonority of the aggregate coincides with the first entry of the
strings; furthermore, the appearance of the first pitch of the symmetrical segment
of the aggregate coincides with the entry of the harp, while the last pitch of the
aggregate - "B" - coincides with the entry of the clarinet. As the graph indicates,
the first pitch in the work ("E") is sustained until Fig. 3, while the symmetrical
segment of the initial harmonic structure is composed-out according to a
consistently observed principle of motion, i.e. the successive appearance of a
semitone plus a minor third, or its enharmonic equivalent, in various
combinations of ascending and descending patterns. In addition, other intervals
than those indicated by the main pattern, i.e. the hexachordal aggregate result
from the presence of octave transpositions in the highest part (i.e. the clarinet).
It is hard to believe that this strikingly beautiful, opulent harmony and the
nostalgic melody played by the clarinet result from a sophisticated, multi-layered
application of a single motion pattern of 1+3. When we separate the "filling-in"
layer controlled by the 1+3 patterns from its constructive frame (by means of
post-Schenkerian reduction technique) the result is a short fragment of an overall
background design in terms of pitch motion. The following graph (in Example 14
below, or see
a larger image) presents this fragment in a different perspective.
Here we may observe the background frame of the pitch motion design of two
complementary musical ideas which constitute the departure points for the
succession of musical events in the Symphony's introductory section.
Example 14: Reduction to deeper structural layers; Lutosławski's Fourth Symphony.
Captions: "reduction (deep layer)" [between the systems of the left],
"reduction" and "4+1 - the second pattern of motion" [between the systems on the right].
The prominent position of the pitch "E" is immediately notable. Later on in the
Symphony this pitch axis is temporarily suspended, only to be restored in the
final sections of the work. Therefore, the overall background design may illustrate
how Lutosławski's pitch-axis technique works. It is striking that exactly the same
overall design (in terms of the structural importance of the pitch "E") may be
recognized in other mature works by Lutosławski, e.g. Livre pour orchestre or his
Third Symphony.
As is well known, Chopin was the only one of the early romantic composers
whom Lutosławski held in the highest esteem. In a conversation with Tadeusz
Kaczyński, Lutosławski stated: "I go back to his music from time to time in
various ways. I listen to it, or play it or study it. Even today [...] I find in the course
of my everyday work that his music refreshes my imagination in certain ways. But
probably nobody would guess that Chopin's music had anything to do with the
works which finally emerge from that relationship" [16] . Although it can not be
proved, it seems quite possible that it was Chopin's structural discipline, his
"constructivist" skill, which could have stimulated Lutosławski's imagination. Let
us note that the aesthetic attitudes of both Polish composers were similar in
respect to the matter of the autonomy of music. It seems that this very attitude
promoted their concentration on the abstract, specifically musical phenomena.
There is no doubt that the structural coherence understood as a latent logic of
the unity in multiplicity belongs to these very phenomena. Therefore,
Lutosławski's statements and works confirm Szymanowski's opinion about
Chopin as a futurist of the romantic epoch, especially in terms of the history of
Polish 20th century music.
NOTES:
[1]. See: Oscar Bie. A History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players, transl. by
E. Kellet and E. Naylor (New York: 1966; original edition: Munich, 1898); Eduard
Hanslick, Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien (Vienna: 1869-1870); James
Hunecker, Chopin: The Man and His Music (New York: 1900); Friedrich Niecks,
Friedrich Chopin als Mensch und als Musiker. (Leipzig: 1890); J. S. Shedlock,
The Pianoforte Sonata: Its Origin and Development (London, 1895). [Back]
[2]. William H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, (London: 1892), vol. 2, p. 155.
[Back]
[3]. Vincent D'Indy, Course de composition musicale, (Paris: 1909; vol. 2, p. 407410). [Back]
[4]. Hugo Leichtentritt, Analyse der Chopin'schen Klavierwerken, (Berlin: 19211922); Heinrich Schenker, Der freie Satz, (Vienna, 1935). [Back]
[5]. Karol Szymanowski, "Fryderyk Chopin," Skamander 1923 (no. 28, p. 22-27
and no. 29/30, p. 106-10). Reprinted in K. Szymanowski, Pisma [Writings], vol. 1
Pisma muzyczne [Musical writings], Kornel Michalowski, ed. (Krakow: PWM,
1984), 89-103. This is Szymanowski's first essay devoted to Fryderyk Chopin.
The manuscript is held in the Karol Szymanowski Collection, Archives of Polish
Composers, Library of the Warsaw University (BUW). English translation by
Maria Piłatowicz forthcoming in After Chopin: Essays in Polish Music, ed. Maria
Anna Harley (Los Angeles: USC Friends of Polish Music). [Editor's note][Back]
[6]. Zofia Lissa, "Harmonika Chopina z perspektywy dżwiękowej XX wieku"
[Chopin's Harmony from the point of view of the 20th century]. In Zofia Lissa,
Studia nad twórczością Fryderyka Chopina [Studies in Chopin's music] (Kraków:
PWM, 1970); Irina Nikolska, "Dramaturgia i forma u Chopina a polska muzyka
XX wieku: wybrane aspekty." [Chopin's dramaturgy and form in view of Polish
20th century music], Rocznik Chopinowski (no. 19, 1987). [Back]
[7]. Maciej Gołąb, Przemiany stylu Chopina [Transformational changes of
Chopin's style], (Kraków: Musica Iagellonica, 1993); Andrzej Tuchowski,
"Integracja strukturalna w świetle przemian stylu Chopina" [Structural coherence
in view of the transformational changes of Chopin's style], (Kraków: Musica
Iagellonica, 1996). [Back]
[8]. Felix Salzer, "Chopin's Nocturne in C-sharp Minor, Op. 27, No. 1," The Music
Forum vol. 2 (1970): 290-291. [Back]
[9]. Schenker,, Op. cit.; Franz Eibner, "Die Stimmfuhrung Chopins in der
Darstellung Heinrich Schenkers," in The Book of the First International
Musicological Congress Devoted to the Works of F. Chopin, Zofia Lissa, ed.,
(Warsaw: F. Chopin Society, 1960); William Kinderman, "Directional tonality in
Chopin, in Chopin Studies, Jim Samson, ed., (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1988). [Back]
[10]. Schenker,, Op. cit.; Eibner,, Op. cit.; Kinderman,, Op. cit.; Jim Samson. "The
Composition-Draft of the Polonaise-Fantasy: The Issue of Tonality." In Chopin
Studies, Jim Samson, ed.,(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988);
Maciej Gołąb, Chromatyka i tonalność w muzyce Chopina [Chromaticism and
tonality in Chopin's music], (Kraków: Musica Iagellonica, 1991). [Back]
[11]. Alan Walker, "Chopin and musical structure," in Frederic Chopin. Profiles of
the Man and the Musician. Alan Walker, ed. (New York: 1967); Anatole Leikin,
"The Sonatas," in The Cambridge Companion to Chopin, Jim Samson, ed.
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); John S. Bollinger, An
Integrative and Schenkerian Analysis of the B-flat Minor Sonata by F. Chopin,
(DMA Thesis, Washington University, 1981); Zofia Helman, "Norma i
indywiduacja w Sonatach Chopina" [Norm and individuality in Chopin's Sonatas],
in Przemiany stylu Chopina [The transformational changes in Chopin's style], M.
Gołąb, ed. (Kraków: Musica Iagellonica, 1993). English translation forthcoming in
Polish Music Journal vol. 2 no. 2, Winter 1999. [Back]
[12]. Hugo Riemann, Geschichte der Musik seit Beethoven, (Berlin: 1911);
Leichtentritt, 1922,, Op. cit., Ludwik Bronarski, Harmonika Chopina [Chopin's
Harmony], (Warsaw, 1935); Józef Chomiński, Sonaty Chopina [Chopin's
Sonatas], (Kraków: PWM, 1960); Paul Benary, "Ein Fall von Fehlinterpretation?"
(Musica no. 1, 1985); Yuri Cholopow, "O zasadach kompozycji Chopina: zagadka
finału Sonaty b-moll" [On compositional principles in Chopin: The mystery of the
finale of the Sonata in B-flat minor], (Rocznik Chopinowski, No. 19, 1987). [Back]
[13]. Zofia Lissa,, Op. cit., 1970. [Back]
[14]. Nikolska,, Op. cit., 1987, p. 185. [Back]
[15]. I further discuss the structural relationships and pitch organization in
Szymanowski's Songs of Infatuated Muezzin in my chapter of Alistair Wightman,
Zofia Helman and Teresa Chylińska, eds. Szymanowski's Songs, Kraków:
Musica Iagellonica, forthcoming; English version, Los Angeles: Friends of Polish
Music; Polish Music History Series, vol. 7). For other studies of Szymanowski's
songs see: Stephen C. Downes, Szymanowski as post-Wagnerian: The Love
Songs of Hafiz,, Op. 24 (New York: Garland, 1994); Alistair Wightman
"Szymanowski and Islam" Musical Times vol. 128, no. 1729 (March 1987): 129132. [Back]
[16]. Tadeusz Kaczyński, Conversations with Witold Lutosławski, transl. Yolanta
May, (London: Chester, 1984; rev. 1995), 171. Originally published as Rozmowy
z Witoldem Lutosławskim, (Kraków: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne, 1972).
Printed in German as "Gespräche mit Witold Lutosławski, mit einem Anhang von
Bálint András Varga," tr. L. Fahlbusch & C. Rüger, in Neun Stunden bei Witold
Lutosławski, (Leipzig, 1976, 163-230). [Editor's note]. [Back]
Abstract
Bibliography
List of Musical Examples
Author's Biography
PMJ - Current Issue
© Copyright 1999 by Andrzej Tuchowski.
Editor: Maria Anna Harley. Publisher: Polish Music Reference Center
Design: Maria Anna Harley & Marcin Depinski. Summer 1999.
Comments and inquiries by e-mail: [email protected]