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CLAS 2407 War and Society in the Roman World Sept 15, 2011 Italy Before the Romans The Founding of Rome Warfare in Early Rome The many Cultures of archaic Italy c. 8th century The Cultural Geography of Early Italy Early Italy was home to many different cultures and languages Local cultural traditions continued well into the 1st century AD Most important cultural and linguistic groups that occupied early Italy included: the Ligurians. Veneti, Gauls/Celts, Umbrian/Sabines, Oscans, Picentes, Latins, Etruscans, Greeks. Over time Rome would incorporate all these different cultures into its own - some by conquest, others by assimilation, others by ‘persuasion’ The Greaco-Roman World Roman culture heavily influenced by Greek culture from its very beginning (Hellenization); intensified by later wars of conquest Most important cultural influence came from Etruscans – Rome situated between Latins (south) and Etruscans (north) From South influenced by Greek City States – Magna Graecia The Etruscans Non Indo-European people Called themselves “Rasenna.” (Tusci in Latin; Tyrsenoi in Greek) Know most about them through archaeology (elaborately painted housetombs) Greek and Roman sources are generally hostile. Occupied much of the territory between the Tiber and the Po rivers (north of Rome); highly sophisticated agricultural society; their territory rich in metal deposits and timber. Etruscan civilization developed rapidly in the 8th century BCE through trade contacts with Greeks and Phoenicians; significant influence on Romans Etruscans: Political Organization Not a unified single state - but loose league of 12 independent Etruscan cities. Each city ruled by a king. Kings were supported by a landed aristocracy; Power was in hands of a few aristocratic families; many cities formed Republican governments run by magistrates elected from the aristocratic class (similar developments in Rome in 6th century). Agricultural economy Land worked by peasants without political rights. Etruscan Social and Cultural Life Many cultural developments stimulated by contacts with Greeks and Phoenicians. Adopted and adapted the Greek alphabet (we cannot decipher their language) Art and Religion appears to have been heavily influenced by Greeks and Phoenicians Many aspects of Etruscan culture and politics would be adopted by Romans; Etruscan rulers in Rome (# 5 Tarquinius Priscus616-578 BCE, # 7 Tarquinius Superbus 534-510 BCE) Politics: Curule chair, Lictors, Fasces. Religion: 1. Augury. 2. Haruspicia. 3. Pontifex (Pontifices – Pontiffs). 3. Divine trio Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. Tria nomina The three Roman names (i.e. Marcus Tullius Cicero); Praenomen, nomen (of gens), cognomen. Greek Colonies in Archaic Italy and Sicily 770 BCE – Pithekousai – mother cities = Eretria and Chalkis 750 BCE – Rhegium – mother cities = Chalkis and Zankle 734 BCE – Syracuse – mother city= Corinth 725 BCE – Cumae – mother cities= Pithekousai and Chalkis 720 BCE – Sybaris – mother city = Achaea 709 BCE – Croton – mother city= Achaea 706 BCE – Tarentum – mother city = Sparta Region called Magna Graecia by Romans The Greeks of Magna Graecia Reasons for founding colonies: overpopulation and land shortage, trade, civil wars, famines, etc.,, – not a unified Greek state collection of independent city states (polis) competing with each other. Trade with peoples of Italy (esp. the Etruscans) stimulated cultural, economic, and political developments of Italy. The Sources for Early Rome a) ancient Historians Livy (Titus Livius) History of Rome from foundation to 9 BCE in 142 books (35 survived complete) Wrote during Augustus’ reign, died in AD 12 or AD 17 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities, Greek Historian, 20 books (11 survived) wrote late first century BCE (See Southern, the Roman Army, p. 26) Early Roman History: Myth or History? No history was written at Rome before the 3rd century B.C. Romans kept official records of annual magistrates and important events such as wars, religious omens, catastrophes, etc. beginning after the Roman Republic had been founded (after 510 BCD) Many details of stories from the regal period and early Republic such as names, dates, what people felt and said, etc., are not historical facts but traditions and are later interpolations Titus Livius (Livy) and Early Roman History The historian Livy ( 59 B.C. – A.D. 17) Work: ab urbe condita ( from the founding of Rome) an enormous history of Rome from its foundation to his own time, contains many traditional stories about early Roman history that are not historical facts! Stories reflect traditional Roman ideals and values, not necessarily those of the early Romans, but rather of later periods and of Livy’s own period (anachronism). Livy’s prologue “Events before the city was founded or planned, which have been handed down more as pleasing poetic fictions than as reliable records of historical events, I intend neither to affirm nor to refute. To antiquity we grant the indulgence of making the origins of cities more impressive by commingling the human with the divine, and if any people should be permitted to sanctify its inception and reckon the gods as its founders, surely the glory of the Roman people in war is such that, when it boasts Mars in particular as its parent and the parent of its founder, the nations of the world would as easily acquiesce in this claim as they do in our rule.” The Founding of Rome According to tradition Foundation legends in Livy Book 1 Traditional stories, details fictional, similar to other myths (i.e. Moses, Oedipus myth. Etc) Foundation Stories: Aeneas and the Trojans; Latinus and the Latins; Lavinia and Lavinium. Ascanius (aka. Iulus) and Alba Longa; The Alban Kings; Aemulius and Numitor. Founding of City: Story of Romulus and Remus - when grown up reclaimed their birthright with small group of warriors fratricide – Romulus kills his own brother War with the Sabines over women Although not historical – stories reflect Roman understanding of their past, important for their identity The Story of Aeneas Livy 1.1 To begin with, it is generally admitted that after the capture of Troy, whilst the rest of the Trojans were massacred, against two of them-Aeneas and Antenor -the Achivi refused to exercise the rights of war, partly owing to old ties of hospitality, and partly because these men had always been in favour of making peace and surrendering Helen. Livy 1.4 the parentage of Romulus and Remus But the Fates had, I believe, already decreed the origin of this great city and the foundation of the mightiest empire under heaven. The Vestal was forcibly violated and gave birth to twins. She named Mars as their father, either because she really believed it, or because the fault might appear less heinous if a deity were the cause of it. But neither gods nor men sheltered her or her babes from the king's cruelty; the priestess was thrown into prison, the boys were ordered to be thrown into the river. Myth and History Details of stories belong to myth and legends Reflect, however, historical tradition well established by late Republican time Reflect a tradition marked by violence militaristic ideology Reflect values central to Roman culture Reflect nature of Roman culture shaped by constant warfare Myth and history Basic outline of Rome’s foundation confirmed by archaeology Suggests that villages on Palatine, Capitoline and Qurinal hills formed one urban centre In 8th and 7th centuries emergence of “public” spaces Marshes between seven hills drained to create public space (Roman Forum); Paving and public buildings (i.e. Regia) Evidence of monarchy The Site of Early Rome http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Roma_Romolo_753aC_png.png The site of Rome Founded on easy crossing of Tiber Available fresh water, fertile land to support population No more than a few villages consisting of a collection of huts Important trade route - – access to sea (travel and transport easiest on water ways = highways) access to interior regions Whoever was in control of the crossing was in powerful position - spot could be easily defended - but Fostered development of militarism Iron Age Hut Urns http://www.vroma.org/images/jwalker_images/jw-13.jpg The Rape of the Sabine Women “There was a great gathering; people were eager to see the new City, all their nearest neighbours-the people of Caenina, Antemnae, and Crustumerium-were there, and the whole Sabine population came, with their wives and families. They were invited to accept hospitality at the different houses, and after examining the situation of the City, its walls and the large number of dwelling-houses it included, they were astonished at the rapidity with which the Roman State had grown. When the hour for the games had come, and their eyes and minds were alike riveted on the spectacle before them, the preconcerted signal was given and the Roman youth dashed in all directions to carry off the maidens who were present. The larger part were carried off indiscriminately, but some particularly beautiful girls who had been marked out for the leading patricians were carried to their houses by plebeians told off for the task.” (Livy, 1.9) War and Synoikism “Then it was that the Sabine women, whose wrongs had led to the war, throwing off all womanish fears in their distress, went boldly into the midst of the flying missiles with dishevelled hair and rent garments. Running across the space between the two armies they tried to stop any further fighting and calm the excited passions by appealing to their fathers in the one army and their husbands in the other not to bring upon themselves a curse by staining their hands with the blood of a father-inlaw or a son-in-law, nor upon their posterity the taint of parricide. "If," they cried, "you are weary of these ties of kindred, these marriage-bonds, then turn your anger upon us; it is we who are the cause of the war, it is we who have wounded and slain our husbands and fathers. Better for us to perish rather than live without one or the other of you, as widows or as orphans." The armies and their leaders were alike moved by this appeal. There was a sudden hush and silence. Then the generals advanced to arrange the terms of a treaty. It was not only peace that was made, the two nations were united into one State, the royal power was shared between them, and the seat of government for both nations was Rome. After thus doubling the City, a concession was made to the Sabines in the new appellation of Quirites, from their old capital of Cures.” (Livy, 1.13) The Rape of the Sabine Women (Livy 1.9-1.13) Rape - from Latin rapio = capture, seize 1. Young community had not enough women; no intermarriage with neighbours; young community despised by their neighbours 2. Romans invited the Sabines to a festival in honour of Neptune, the Consualia, Sabines came with their families. During festival the young unmarried girls were seized by Romans and made their wives. “As the games broke up in confusion and fear, the grieving parents of the maidens ran off, accusing the Romans of violating their sacred obligations as hosts and invoking the god to whose festival and games they had been deceitfully invited contrary to religion and good faith. The abducted maidens had not better hope for their plight than had their parents, nor was their indignation less.” (Livy 1.9) The benefits will make up for the wrong “Romulus repeatedly went about in person to visit them, arguing that what had occurred was due to the arrogance of their parents who had refused intermarriage with their neighbours. Despite this, he promised that they would enjoy the rights of a proper marriage becoming partners in all the fortunes the couple might share, in Rome’s citizenship, and in the begetting of children, the object dearest to every person’s heart. …often he said, thankfulness replaces a sense of wrong over the course of time, ….”(Livy 1.9) War with the Sabines “..when the two sides renewed the general fight in the valley …It was at this moment that the Sabine women, whose abduction had caused the war, boldly interposed themselves amid the flying spears. Their misfortunes overcame womanish fear: with hair streaming and garments rent, they made a mad rush from the sidelines, parting the battling armies and checking their angry strife. Appealing to fathers on one side and husbands on the other, they declared that kin by marriage should not defile themselves with impious carnage, nor leave the stain of blood upon descendants of their blood, grandfathers upon grandson, fathers upon children. ..Their appeal moved both leaders and rank and file ….the commanders then came forward to strike a treaty by which they not only made peace but united the two peoples in a single community.” (Livy 1.13) The function of the ‘Sabine Women’ legend to pass on and reinforce important social ideals and values associated with marriage 1. the importance of marriage and children to ensure the future of the community; 2. the importance of marriage as forging alliances; bonds between kin considered the most important ones. 3. the important role of women for the perpetuation of the state and to cement political alliances 4. story demonstrates what is the expected conduct of women: they must be loyal both to their paternal family and to their conjugal family: women as bridging the divide. Marriage by capture, a ritual practiced by the Spartans – probably reenacting a similar practice of capturing wives when they first arrived and settled in the region Justification for violence Story example of how relationship originally established by violence could turn into a mutually beneficial relationship. Reflection of values (justification for the use of violence) of later period of Roman conquest, when Romans forced other people under their rule. Also theme in Augustan period: civil wars ultimately brought peace to Roman society and the pax Romanum to the world. Important values : the centrality of the state; justified violence The value of Roman citizenship anachronistic – a later value projected back to Rome’s earliest day. The 7 Kings of Rome (according to tradition) 1. Romulus - 753 BCE: founder of Rome rules 36 years. 2. Numa Pompilius (Sabine) – rules 42 years. 3. Tullus Hostilius (Latin) – 31 years. 4. Ancus Marcius (Sabine) – 24 years. 5. Tarquinius Priscus (First Etruscan King of Rome) – 38 years. 6. Servius Tullus; (Latin) – 44 years. 7. Tarquinius Superbus (Last King of Rome; Etruscan) – 24 years 510 BCE: Expulsion of the Tarquins; End of monarchy, establishment of Roman Republic Not historical, chronology not confirmed by archaeological evidence, stereotypes, similarities in Greek literary tradition Type of ‘Warfare’ in the 8th and 7th century small-scale raids on neighboring communities Cattle rustling ‘Armies’ consisted of a leader (local strong man) his relatives and followers Leader was the most successful warrior Leader fought for personal glory and his followers out of loyalty to leader who was able to protect them and provided for them Type of warfare throughout Europe in archaic period similar to Homeric type of warfare - Chigi Vase ca. 650 – 640 BCE found in Etruscan tomb depicting hoplite formation Chigi Vase th 7 century