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CLAS 2407 War and Society
in the Roman World
Sept 15, 2011
Italy Before the Romans
The Founding of Rome
Warfare in Early Rome
The many Cultures of archaic Italy
c. 8th century
The Cultural Geography of Early
Italy
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Early Italy was home to many different cultures and
languages
Local cultural traditions continued well into the 1st
century AD
Most important cultural and linguistic groups that
occupied early Italy included: the Ligurians. Veneti,
Gauls/Celts, Umbrian/Sabines, Oscans, Picentes, Latins,
Etruscans, Greeks.
Over time Rome would incorporate all these different
cultures into its own - some by conquest, others by
assimilation, others by ‘persuasion’
The Greaco-Roman World
Roman culture heavily influenced by Greek
culture from its very beginning (Hellenization);
intensified by later wars of conquest
 Most important cultural influence came from
Etruscans –
 Rome situated between Latins (south) and
Etruscans (north)  From South influenced by Greek City States –
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Magna Graecia
The Etruscans
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Non Indo-European people
Called themselves “Rasenna.” (Tusci in Latin; Tyrsenoi in
Greek)
Know most about them through archaeology (elaborately
painted housetombs) Greek and Roman sources are
generally hostile.
Occupied much of the territory between the Tiber and the Po
rivers (north of Rome); highly sophisticated agricultural
society; their territory rich in metal deposits and timber.
Etruscan civilization developed rapidly in the 8th century BCE
through trade contacts with Greeks and Phoenicians;
significant influence on Romans
Etruscans: Political Organization
Not a unified single state - but loose league of 12
independent Etruscan cities.
 Each city ruled by a king.
 Kings were supported by a landed aristocracy;
 Power was in hands of a few aristocratic families;
 many cities formed Republican governments run by
magistrates elected from the aristocratic class (similar
developments in Rome in 6th century).
 Agricultural economy
 Land worked by peasants without political rights.
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Etruscan Social and Cultural Life
Many cultural developments stimulated by contacts with Greeks and
Phoenicians.
 Adopted and adapted the Greek alphabet (we cannot decipher their
language)
 Art and Religion appears to have been heavily influenced by Greeks and
Phoenicians
 Many aspects of Etruscan culture and politics would be adopted by Romans;
Etruscan rulers in Rome (# 5 Tarquinius Priscus616-578 BCE, # 7 Tarquinius
Superbus 534-510 BCE)
 Politics: Curule chair, Lictors, Fasces.
 Religion: 1. Augury. 2. Haruspicia. 3. Pontifex (Pontifices – Pontiffs). 3.
Divine trio Jupiter, Juno, Minerva.
 Tria nomina The three Roman names (i.e. Marcus Tullius Cicero);
Praenomen, nomen (of gens), cognomen.
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Greek Colonies in Archaic Italy
and Sicily
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770 BCE – Pithekousai – mother cities = Eretria and
Chalkis
750 BCE – Rhegium – mother cities = Chalkis and
Zankle
734 BCE – Syracuse – mother city= Corinth
725 BCE – Cumae – mother cities= Pithekousai and
Chalkis
720 BCE – Sybaris – mother city = Achaea
709 BCE – Croton – mother city= Achaea
706 BCE – Tarentum – mother city = Sparta
Region called Magna Graecia by Romans
The Greeks of Magna Graecia
Reasons for founding colonies: overpopulation and
land shortage, trade, civil wars, famines, etc.,,
 – not a unified Greek state collection of independent
city states (polis) competing with each other.
 Trade with peoples of Italy (esp. the Etruscans)
stimulated cultural, economic, and political
developments of Italy.
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The Sources for Early Rome
a) ancient Historians
Livy (Titus Livius) History of Rome from
foundation to 9 BCE in 142 books (35
survived complete)
 Wrote during Augustus’ reign, died in AD
12 or AD 17
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman
Antiquities, Greek Historian, 20 books (11
survived) wrote late first century BCE
 (See Southern, the Roman Army, p. 26)
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Early Roman History:
Myth or History?
No history was written at Rome before the 3rd
century B.C.
 Romans kept official records of annual
magistrates and important events such as wars,
religious omens, catastrophes, etc. beginning
after the Roman Republic had been founded
(after 510 BCD)
 Many details of stories from the regal period and
early Republic such as names, dates, what
people felt and said, etc., are not historical facts
but traditions and are later interpolations
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Titus Livius (Livy)
and Early Roman History
The historian Livy ( 59 B.C. – A.D. 17)
 Work: ab urbe condita ( from the founding of
Rome) an enormous history of Rome from its
foundation to his own time, contains many
traditional stories about early Roman history that
are not historical facts!
 Stories reflect traditional Roman ideals and
values, not necessarily those of the early
Romans, but rather of later periods and of Livy’s
own period (anachronism).
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Livy’s prologue
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“Events before the city was founded or planned, which
have been handed down more as pleasing poetic fictions
than as reliable records of historical events, I intend
neither to affirm nor to refute. To antiquity we grant the
indulgence of making the origins of cities more
impressive by commingling the human with the divine,
and if any people should be permitted to sanctify its
inception and reckon the gods as its founders, surely the
glory of the Roman people in war is such that, when it
boasts Mars in particular as its parent and the parent of
its founder, the nations of the world would as easily
acquiesce in this claim as they do in our rule.”
The Founding of Rome
According to tradition
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Foundation legends in Livy Book 1
Traditional stories, details fictional, similar to other myths (i.e.
Moses, Oedipus myth. Etc)
Foundation Stories:
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 Aeneas and the Trojans; Latinus and the Latins; Lavinia and Lavinium.
 Ascanius (aka. Iulus) and Alba Longa; The Alban Kings; Aemulius and
Numitor.
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Founding of City: Story of Romulus and Remus - when grown up
reclaimed their birthright with small group of warriors
fratricide – Romulus kills his own brother
War with the Sabines over women
Although not historical – stories reflect Roman understanding of
their past, important for their identity
The Story of Aeneas
Livy 1.1
 To begin with, it is generally admitted that after
the capture of Troy, whilst the rest of the Trojans
were massacred, against two of them-Aeneas
and Antenor -the Achivi refused to exercise the
rights of war, partly owing to old ties of
hospitality, and partly because these men had
always been in favour of making peace and
surrendering Helen.
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Livy 1.4 the parentage of Romulus
and Remus
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But the Fates had, I believe, already decreed the
origin of this great city and the foundation of the
mightiest empire under heaven. The Vestal was
forcibly violated and gave birth to twins. She
named Mars as their father, either because she
really believed it, or because the fault might
appear less heinous if a deity were the cause of
it. But neither gods nor men sheltered her or her
babes from the king's cruelty; the priestess was
thrown into prison, the boys were ordered to be
thrown into the river.
Myth and History
Details of stories belong to myth and
legends
 Reflect, however, historical tradition well
established by late Republican time
 Reflect a tradition marked by violence militaristic ideology
 Reflect values central to Roman culture
 Reflect nature of Roman culture shaped by
constant warfare
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Myth and history
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Basic outline of Rome’s foundation confirmed by
archaeology
Suggests that villages on Palatine, Capitoline and
Qurinal hills formed one urban centre
In 8th and 7th centuries emergence of “public” spaces
Marshes between seven hills drained to create public
space (Roman Forum); Paving and public buildings
(i.e. Regia)
Evidence of monarchy
The Site of Early Rome
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Roma_Romolo_753aC_png.png
The site of Rome
Founded on easy crossing of Tiber
 Available fresh water, fertile land to support population
 No more than a few villages consisting of a collection of
huts
 Important trade route - – access to sea (travel and
transport easiest on water ways = highways) access to
interior regions  Whoever was in control of the crossing was in powerful
position - spot could be easily defended - but
 Fostered development of militarism
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Iron Age Hut Urns
http://www.vroma.org/images/jwalker_images/jw-13.jpg
The Rape of the Sabine Women
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“There was a great gathering; people were eager to see the new City, all
their nearest neighbours-the people of Caenina, Antemnae, and
Crustumerium-were there, and the whole Sabine population came, with
their wives and families. They were invited to accept hospitality at the
different houses, and after examining the situation of the City, its walls and
the large number of dwelling-houses it included, they were astonished at
the rapidity with which the Roman State had grown. When the hour for the
games had come, and their eyes and minds were alike riveted on the
spectacle before them, the preconcerted signal was given and the Roman
youth dashed in all directions to carry off the maidens who were present.
The larger part were carried off indiscriminately, but some particularly
beautiful girls who had been marked out for the leading patricians were
carried to their houses by plebeians told off for the task.” (Livy, 1.9)
War and Synoikism
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“Then it was that the Sabine women, whose wrongs had led to the war, throwing off
all womanish fears in their distress, went boldly into the midst of the flying missiles
with dishevelled hair and rent garments. Running across the space between the two
armies they tried to stop any further fighting and calm the excited passions by
appealing to their fathers in the one army and their husbands in the other not to
bring upon themselves a curse by staining their hands with the blood of a father-inlaw or a son-in-law, nor upon their posterity the taint of parricide. "If," they cried,
"you are weary of these ties of kindred, these marriage-bonds, then turn your anger
upon us; it is we who are the cause of the war, it is we who have wounded and slain
our husbands and fathers. Better for us to perish rather than live without one or the
other of you, as widows or as orphans." The armies and their leaders were alike
moved by this appeal. There was a sudden hush and silence. Then the generals
advanced to arrange the terms of a treaty. It was not only peace that was made, the
two nations were united into one State, the royal power was shared between them,
and the seat of government for both nations was Rome. After thus doubling the City,
a concession was made to the Sabines in the new appellation of Quirites, from their
old capital of Cures.” (Livy, 1.13)
The Rape of the Sabine Women
(Livy 1.9-1.13)
Rape - from Latin rapio = capture, seize
 1. Young community had not enough women; no
intermarriage with neighbours; young
community despised by their neighbours
 2. Romans invited the Sabines to a festival in
honour of Neptune, the Consualia, Sabines came
with their families. During festival the young
unmarried girls were seized by Romans and
made their wives.
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“As the games broke up in confusion and
fear, the grieving parents of the maidens
ran off, accusing the Romans of violating
their sacred obligations as hosts and
invoking the god to whose festival and
games they had been deceitfully invited
contrary to religion and good faith. The
abducted maidens had not better hope for
their plight than had their parents, nor
was their indignation less.” (Livy 1.9)
The benefits will make up for the
wrong
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“Romulus repeatedly went about in person to
visit them, arguing that what had occurred was
due to the arrogance of their parents who had
refused intermarriage with their neighbours.
Despite this, he promised that they would enjoy
the rights of a proper marriage becoming
partners in all the fortunes the couple might
share, in Rome’s citizenship, and in the
begetting of children, the object dearest to
every person’s heart. …often he said,
thankfulness replaces a sense of wrong over the
course of time, ….”(Livy 1.9)
War with the Sabines
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“..when the two sides renewed the general fight in the
valley …It was at this moment that the Sabine women,
whose abduction had caused the war, boldly interposed
themselves amid the flying spears. Their misfortunes
overcame womanish fear: with hair streaming and
garments rent, they made a mad rush from the sidelines,
parting the battling armies and checking their angry
strife. Appealing to fathers on one side and husbands on
the other, they declared that kin by marriage should not
defile themselves with impious carnage, nor leave the
stain of blood upon descendants of their blood,
grandfathers upon grandson, fathers upon children.
..Their appeal moved both leaders and rank and file
….the commanders then came forward to strike a treaty
by which they not only made peace but united the two
peoples in a single community.” (Livy 1.13)
The function of the ‘Sabine Women’
legend
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to pass on and reinforce important social ideals and
values associated with marriage
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1. the importance of marriage and children to ensure the
future of the community;
2. the importance of marriage as forging alliances;
bonds between kin considered the most important ones.
3. the important role of women for the perpetuation of
the state and to cement political alliances
4. story demonstrates what is the expected conduct of
women: they must be loyal both to their paternal family
and to their conjugal family: women as bridging the
divide.
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Marriage by capture,
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a ritual practiced by the Spartans –
probably reenacting a similar practice of
capturing wives when they first arrived
and settled in the region
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Justification for violence
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Story example of how relationship originally established by violence
could turn into a mutually beneficial relationship.
Reflection of values (justification for the use of violence) of later
period of Roman conquest, when Romans forced other people under
their rule.
Also theme in Augustan period: civil wars ultimately brought peace
to Roman society and the pax Romanum to the world.
Important values : the centrality of the state; justified violence
The value of Roman citizenship anachronistic – a later value projected back to Rome’s earliest day.
The 7 Kings of Rome (according to
tradition)
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1. Romulus - 753 BCE: founder of Rome rules 36 years.
2. Numa Pompilius (Sabine) – rules 42 years.
3. Tullus Hostilius (Latin) – 31 years.
4. Ancus Marcius (Sabine) – 24 years.
5. Tarquinius Priscus (First Etruscan King of Rome) – 38
years.
6. Servius Tullus; (Latin) – 44 years.
7. Tarquinius Superbus (Last King of Rome; Etruscan) –
24 years
510 BCE: Expulsion of the Tarquins; End of monarchy,
establishment of Roman Republic
Not historical, chronology not confirmed by archaeological
evidence, stereotypes, similarities in Greek literary tradition
Type of ‘Warfare’ in the 8th and 7th
century
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small-scale raids on neighboring communities
Cattle rustling
‘Armies’ consisted of a leader (local strong man)
his relatives and followers
Leader was the most successful warrior
Leader fought for personal glory and his
followers out of loyalty to leader who was able
to protect them and provided for them
Type of warfare throughout Europe in archaic
period similar to Homeric type of warfare -
Chigi Vase ca. 650 – 640 BCE
found in Etruscan tomb
depicting hoplite formation
Chigi Vase
th
7
century