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Some Basic Statistical Concepts Dr. Tai-Yue Wang Department of Industrial and Information Management National Cheng Kung University Tainan, TAIWAN, ROC 1/33 Outline Introduction Basic Statistical Concepts Inferences about the differences in Means, Randomized Designs Inferences about the Differences in Means, Paired Comparison Designs Inferences about the Variances of Normal Distribution 2/33 Introduction Formulation of a cement mortar Original formulation and modified formulation 10 samples for each formulation One factor formulation Two formulations: two treatments two levels of the factor formulation 3 Introduction Results: 4 Introduction Dot diagram 5 Basic Statistical Concepts Experiences from above example Run – each of above observations Noise, experimental error, error – the individual runs difference Statistical error– arises from variation that is uncontrolled and generally unavoidable The presence of error means that the response variable is a random variable Random variable could be discrete or continuous 6 Basic Statistical Concepts Describing sample data Graphical descriptions Dot diagram—central tendency, spread Box plot – Histogram 7 Basic Statistical Concepts 8 Basc Statistical Concepts 9 Basic Statistical Concepts •Discrete vs continuous 10 Basic Statistical Concepts Probability distribution Discrete 0 p( y j ) 1 all values of y j P( y y j ) p( y j ) all values of y j p( y ) 1 j all values of y j Continuous 0 f ( y) b p ( a y b) f ( y )dy a f ( y )dy 1 11 Basic Statistical Concepts Probability distribution Mean—measure of its central tendency yf ( y )dy y continuous y yp( y ) y discrete all Expected value –long-run average value yf ( y )dy y continuous E( y) y yp( y ) y discrete all 12 Basic Statistical Concepts Probability distribution Variance —variability or dispersion of a distribution ( y ) 2 f ( y )dy y continuous 2 ( y ) p( y ) y discrete all y ( or 2 E[( y ) 2 ] or V ( y) 2 13 Basic Statistical Concepts Probability distribution Properties: c is a constant E(c) = c E(y)= μ E(cy)=cE(y)=cμ V(c)=0 V(y)= σ2 V(cy)=c2 σ2 E(y1+y2)= μ1+ μ2 14 Basic Statistical Concepts Probability distribution Properties: c is a constant V(y1+y2)= V(y1)+V(y2)+2Cov(y1, y2) V(y1-y2)= V(y1)+V(y2)-2Cov(y1, y2) If y1 and y2 are independent, Cov(y1, y2) =0 E(y1*y2)= E(y1)*V(y2)= μ1* μ2 E(y1/y2) is not necessary equal to E(y1)/V(y2) 15 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Random samples -if the population contains N elements and a sample of n of them is to be selected, and if each of N!/[(N-n)!n!] possible samples has equal probability being chosen Random sampling – above procedure Statistic – any function of the observations in a sample that does not contain unknown parameters 16 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Sample mean n y y i 1 i n Sample variance n s2 2 ( y y ) i i 1 n 1 17 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Estimator – a statistic that correspond to an unknown parameter Estimate – a particular numerical value of an estimator Point estimator: y to μ and s2 to σ2 Properties on sample mean and variance: The point estimator should be unbiased An unbiased estimator should have minimum variance 18 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Sum of squares, SS in n 2 ( yi y ) E ( S 2 ) E i 1 n 1 Sum of squares, SS, can be defined as n SS ( yi y )2 i 1 19 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Degree of freedom, v, number of independent elements in a sum of square in n 2 ( yi y ) E ( S 2 ) E i 1 n 1 Degree of freedom, v , can be defined as v n 1 20 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Normal distribution, N 1 (1 / 2 )[( y ) / ]2 f ( y) e - y 2 21 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Standard Normal distribution, z, a normal distribution with μ=0 and σ2=1 z y i.e., z~N( 0 ,1 ) 22 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Central Limit Theorem– If y1, y2, …, yn is a sequence of n independent and identically distributed random variables with E(yi)=μ and V(yi)=σ2 and x=y1+y2+…+yn, then the limiting form of the distribution of zn x n n 2 as n∞, is the standard normal distribution 23 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Chi-square, χ2 , distribution– If z1, z2, …, zk are normally and independently distributed random variables with mean 0 and variance 1, NID(0,1), the random variable x z12 z22 ... zk2 follows the chi-square distribution with k degree of freedom. 1 f ( x) k / 2 x ( k / 2 )1e x / 2 2 (k / 2) 24 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution Chi-square distribution– example If y1, y2, …, yn are random samples from N(μ, σ2), distribution, n SS 2 ( y y) i 1 i 2 2 ~ n21 Sample variance from NID(μ, σ2), SS S i.e., S 2 ~ [ 2 /( n 1)] n21 n 1 2 25 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution t distribution– If z and k2 are independent standard normal and chi-square random variables, respectively, the random variable tk z k2 / k follows t distribution with k degrees of freedom 26 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution pdf of t distribution– [( k 1) / 2] 1 f (t ) k (k / 2) [( t 2 / k ) 1]( k 1) / 2 t μ =0, σ2=k/(k-2) for k>2 27 Basic Statistical Concepts 28 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution If y1, y2, …, yn are random samples from N(μ, σ2), the quantity y t S/ n is distributed as t with n-1 degrees of freedom 29 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution F distribution— If u2 and v2 are two independent chi-square random variables with u and v degrees of freedom, respectively u2 / u Fu ,v 2 v / v follows F distribution with u numerator degrees of freedom and v denominator degrees of freedom 30 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution pdf of F distribution– [( u v ) / 2]( u / v )u / 2 x ( u / 2 )1 h( x ) (u / x )(v / 2)[( u / v ) x 1]( uv ) / 2 0 x 31 Basic Statistical Concepts Sampling and sampling distribution F distribution– example Suppose we have two independent normal distributions with common variance σ2 , if y11, y12, …, y1n1 is a random sample of n1 observations from the first population and y21, y22, …, y2n2 is a random sample of n2 observations from the second population S12 ~ Fn1 1, n2 1 2 S2 32 The Hypothesis Testing Framework Statistical hypothesis testing is a useful framework for many experimental situations Origins of the methodology date from the early 1900s We will use a procedure known as the twosample t-test 33 Two-Sample-t-Test Suppose we have two independent normal, if y11, y12, …, y1n1 is a random sample of n1 observations from the first population and y21, y22, …, y2n2 is a random sample of n2 observations from the second population 34 Two-Sample-t-Test A model for data i 1,2 yij i ij{ , ij ~ NID(0, i2 ) j 1,2,..., n j ε is a random error 35 Two-Sample-t-Test Sampling from a normal distribution Statistical hypotheses: H : 0 1 2 H1 : 1 2 36 Two-Sample-t-Test H0 is called the null hypothesis and H1 is call alternative hypothesis. One-sided vs two-sided hypothesis Type I error, α: the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true Type II error, β: the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false P( type I error ) P( reject H 0 | H 0 is true ) P( type II error ) P(fail to reject H 0 | H 0 is false) 37 Two-Sample-t-Test Power of the test: Power 1 P( reject H 0 | H 0 is false) Type I error significance level 1- α = confidence level 38 Two-Sample-t-Test Two-sample-t-test Hypothesis: H 0 : 1 2 H1 : 1 2 Test statistic: where y1 y2 t0 1 1 Sp n1 n1 2 2 ( n 1 ) S ( n 1 ) S 1 2 2 S p2 1 (n1 n2 2) 39 Two-Sample-t-Test 1 n y yi estimates the population mean n i 1 n 1 2 2 S ( yi y ) estimates the variance n 1 i 1 2 40 Two-Sample-t-Test 41 Example --Summary Statistics Formulation 1 Formulation 2 “New recipe” “Original recipe” y1 16.76 y2 17.04 S 0.100 S22 0.061 S1 0.316 S2 0.248 n1 10 n2 10 2 1 42 Two-Sample-t-Test--How the TwoSample t-Test Works: Use the sample means to draw inferences about the population means y1 y2 16.76 17.04 0.28 Difference in sample means Standard deviation of the difference in sample means 2 y 2 n This suggests a statistic: Z0 y1 y2 12 n1 22 n2 43 Two-Sample-t-Test--How the TwoSample t-Test Works: Use S and S to estimate and 2 1 2 2 2 1 The previous ratio becomes 2 2 y1 y2 2 1 2 2 S S n1 n2 However, we have the case where 2 1 2 2 2 Pool the individual sample variances: (n1 1) S (n2 1) S S n1 n2 2 2 p 2 1 2 2 44 Two-Sample-t-Test--How the Two-Sample t-Test Works: The test statistic is y1 y2 t0 1 1 Sp n1 n2 Values of t0 that are near zero are consistent with the null hypothesis Values of t0 that are very different from zero are consistent with the alternative hypothesis t0 is a “distance” measure-how far apart the averages are expressed in standard deviation units Notice the interpretation of t0 as a signal-to-noise ratio 45 The Two-Sample (Pooled) t-Test (n1 1) S12 (n2 1) S22 9(0.100) 9(0.061) S 0.081 n1 n2 2 10 10 2 2 p S p 0.284 t0 y1 y2 16.76 17.04 2.20 1 1 1 1 Sp 0.284 n1 n2 10 10 The two sample means are a little over two standard deviations apart Is this a "large" difference? 46 Two-Sample-t-Test P-value– The smallest level of significance that would lead to rejection of the null hypothesis. Computer application Two-Sample T-Test and CI Sample N Mean StDev SE Mean 1 10 16.760 0.316 0.10 2 10 17.040 0.248 0.078 Difference = mu (1) - mu (2) Estimate for difference: -0.280 95% CI for difference: (-0.547, -0.013) T-Test of difference = 0 (vs not =): T-Value = -2.20 P-Value = 0.041 DF = 18 Both use Pooled StDev = 0.2840 47 William Sealy Gosset (1876, 1937) Gosset's interest in barley cultivation led him to speculate that design of experiments should aim, not only at improving the average yield, but also at breeding varieties whose yield was insensitive (robust) to variation in soil and climate. Developed the t-test (1908) Gosset was a friend of both Karl Pearson and R.A. Fisher, an achievement, for each had a monumental ego and a loathing for the other. Gosset was a modest man who cut short an admirer with the comment that “Fisher would have discovered it all anyway.” 48 The Two-Sample (Pooled) t-Test So far, we haven’t really done any “statistics” We need an objective basis for deciding how large the test statistic t0 really is In 1908, W. S. Gosset derived the reference distribution for t0 … called the t distribution Tables of the t distribution – see textbook appendix t0 = -2.20 49 The Two-Sample (Pooled) t-Test t0 = -2.20 A value of t0 between –2.101 and 2.101 is consistent with equality of means It is possible for the means to be equal and t0 to exceed either 2.101 or –2.101, but it would be a “rare event” … leads to the conclusion that the means are different Could also use the P-value approach 50 The Two-Sample (Pooled) t-Test t0 = -2.20 The P-value is the area (probability) in the tails of the t-distribution beyond -2.20 + the probability beyond +2.20 (it’s a two-sided test) The P-value is a measure of how unusual the value of the test statistic is given that the null hypothesis is true The P-value the risk of wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis of equal means (it measures rareness of the event) The P-value in our problem is P = 0.042 51 Checking Assumptions – The Normal Probability Plot 52 Two-sample-t-test--Choice of sample size The choice of sample size and the probability of type II error β are closely related connected Suppose that we are testing the hypothesis H 0 : 1 2 H1 : 1 2 And The mean are not equal so that δ=μ1-μ2 Because H0 is not true we care about the probability of wrongly failing to reject H0 type II error 53/72 Two-sample-t-test--Choice of sample size Define One can find the sample size by varying power (1-β) and δ 1 2 d 2 2 54 Two-sample-t-test--Choice of sample size Testing mean 1 = mean 2 (versus not =) Calculating power for mean 1 = mean 2 + difference Alpha = 0.05 Assumed standard deviation = 0.25 Sample Target Difference Size Power Actual Power 0.25 27 0.95 0.950077 0.25 23 0.90 0.912498 0.25 10 0.55 0.562007 0.50 8 0.95 0.960221 0.50 7 0.90 0.929070 0.50 4 0.55 0.656876 The sample size is for each group. 55 Two-sample-t-test--Choice of sample size 56 An Introduction to Experimental Design -How to sample? A completely randomized design is an experimental design in which the treatments are randomly assigned to the experimental units. If the experimental units are heterogeneous, blocking can be used to form homogeneous groups, resulting in a randomized block design. 57/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? Recall Simple Random Sampling Finite populations are often defined by lists such as: Organization membership roster Credit card account numbers Inventory product numbers 58/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? A simple random sample of size n from a finite population of size N is a sample selected such that each possible sample of size n has the same probability of being selected. Replacing each sampled element before selecting subsequent elements is called sampling with replacement. Sampling without replacement is the procedure used most often. 59/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? In large sampling projects, computer-generated random numbers are often used to automate the sample selection process. Excel provides a function for generating random numbers in its worksheets. Infinite populations are often defined by an ongoing process whereby the elements of the population consist of items generated as though the process would operate indefinitely. 60/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? A simple random sample from an infinite population is a sample selected such that the following conditions are satisfied. Each element selected comes from the same population. Each element is selected independently. 61/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? Random Numbers: the numbers in the table are random, these four-digit numbers are equally likely. 62/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? Most experiments have critical error on random sampling. Ex: sampling 8 samples from a production line in one day Wrong method: Get one sample every 3 hours not random! 63/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? Ex: sampling 8 samples from a production line Correct method: You can get one sample at each 3 hours interval but not every 3 hours correct but not a simple random sampling Get 8 samples in 24 hours Maximum population is 24, getting 8 samples two digits 63, 27, 15, 99, 86, 71, 74, 45, 10, 21, 51, … Larger than 24 is discarded So eight samples are collected at: 15, 10, 21, … hour 64/54 Completely Randomized Design -How to sample? In Completely Randomized Design, samples are randomly collected by simple random sampling method. Only one factor is concerned in Completely Randomized Design, and k levels in this factor. 65/54 Importance of the t-Test Provides an objective framework for simple comparative experiments Could be used to test all relevant hypotheses in a two-level factorial design, because all of these hypotheses involve the mean response at one “side” of the cube versus the mean response at the opposite “side” of the cube 66 Two-sample-t-test— Confidence Intervals Hypothesis testing gives an objective statement concerning the difference in means, but it doesn’t specify “how different” they are General form of a confidence interval L U where P( L U ) 1 The 100(1- α)% confidence interval on the difference in two means: y1 y2 t / 2,n1 n2 2 S p (1/ n1 ) (1/ n2 ) 1 2 y1 y2 t / 2,n1 n2 2 S p (1/ n1 ) (1/ n2 ) 67 Two-sample-t-test— Confidence Intervals--example 68 Other Topics Hypothesis testing when the variances are known—two-sample-z-test One sample inference—one-sample-z or one-sample-t tests Hypothesis tests on variances– chi-square test Paired experiments 69 Other Topics 70 Other Topics 71 Other Topics 72