Download Контрольная работа Английский язык гр. С-413з С-423з

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ
федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение
высшего образования
«Северный (Арктический) федеральный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова»
филиал в г. Северодвинске Архангельской области
ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ КОЛЛЕДЖ
УТВЕРЖДАЮ
Директор технического колледжа
_________________ С.В. Гриб
«___»_____________2015г.
Макарова Ольга Семеновна
Контрольная работа
по дисциплине «Английский язык»
Северодвинск
2016
Автор:
Макарова О.С., преподаватель иностранных языков
О.С.Макарова
Контрольная работа по дисциплине «Английский язык» – Северодвинск:
технический колледж,
2016. – 19с.
Контрольная работа предназначена для студентов специальности: 08.02.01
«Строительство и эксплуатация зданий и сооружений», 4 курс обучения (заочная форма)
_____________________________
© Макарова О.С., 2016.
© Технический колледж
Усл. печ. л. 2,3
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Контрольная работа по Английскому языку предназначена для подготовки
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Работа выполняется студентом в установленные сроки и оформляется в
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стандартом САФУ:
1. Компьютерный текст в формате редактора WORD
2. Межстрочный интервал 1,5
3. Шрифт кегля 13, гарнитура Times New Roman
4. Поля: верхнее и нижнее поле - 1,5 см, левое поле – 2,5 см, правое поле 1 см
5. Выравнивание по ширине
6. Абзацный отступ 1,25
Контрольная работа представляется в печатном виде.
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Text 1: BUILDINGS: FIRST IMPRESSIONS
What makes the look of British towns and cities distinctive? The most striking feature is the lack of
blocks of flats. People prefer to live in individual houses — units with their own front doors and
sometimes gardens. Perhaps this says something about the national character; a love of privacy and a
lack of interest in the wider community. There is a proverb: "An Englishman's home is his castle".
Whatever the deeper reasons for it, the result is that British towns and cities are full of two or threestorey houses. Only in the 1950s and -60s councils started building tall blocks of flats in the
American style; but these have been very unpopular, and the cheaper ones are now being demolished.
Another distinctive feature of British buildings is the use of brick. Some of the oldest monuments,
like Hampton Court Palace or Queens' College, Cambridge, are made of brick. It remains the
favourite material for new houses today. While the rest of the world prefers concrete, for some reason
the British taste is for brick, at least in smaller buildings.
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Text 2: SOME TRENDS IN THE HISTORY OF BUILDING
Human shelters were at first very simple and perhaps lasted only a few days or months. Over time,
however, even temporary structures evolved into such highly refined forms as the igloo.
Gradually more durable structures began to appear, particularly after the advent of agriculture, when
people began to stay in one place for long periods. The first shelters were dwellings, but later
other functions, such as food storage and ceremony, were housed in separate buildings. Some
structures began to have symbolic as well as functional value, marking the beginning of the
distinction between architecture and building.
The history of building is marked by a number of trends. One is the increasing durability of
the materials used. Early building materials were perishable, such as leaves, and branches. Later,
more durable natural materials — such as clay, stone, and timber — and, finally, synthetic materials
— such as brick, concrete, metals, and plastics — were used. Another is a quest for buildings of
ever greater height and span; this was made possible by the development of stronger materials and
by knowledge of how materials behave and how to exploit them to greater advantage. A third
major trend involves the degree of control exercised over the interior environment of buildings:
increasingly precise regulation of air temperature, light and sound levels, humidity, odours, air
speed, and other factors that affect human comfort has been possible. Yet another trend is the
change in energy available to the construction process, starting with human muscle power and
developing toward the powerful machinery used today.
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Text 3: THE FATHER OF THE AMERICAN SKYSCRAPER
William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) was an American civil engineer and architect who
became known as the Father of the American skyscraper. Jenney was born in Fairhaven,
Massachusetts on September 25, 1832. Jenney first began his formal education at the Lawrence
Scientific school at Harvard in 1853, but transferred -щ to Paris to get an education in engineering and
architecture. He graduated in 1856, one year after his classmate, Gustave Eiffel, the designer of
the Eiffel Tower. In 1861, he returned to the US to join the Union Army as an engineer in the Civil
War. After the war, in 1867, Jenney moved to Chicago, Illinois and began his own architectural
office, which specialized in commercial buildings and urban planning.
In 1998, Jenney was ranked number 89 in the book "1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking the
Men and Women Who Shaped the Millennium". Jenney is best known for designing the ten-storey
Home Insurance Building in Chicago. The building was the first fully metal-frame skyscraper, and is
considered the first skyscraper. It was built from 1884 to 1885, enlarged in 1891, and demolished in
1931. In his designs, he used metal columns and beams, instead of stone and brick to support the
building's upper levels. The steel needed to support the Home Insurance Building weighed only
one-third as much as a ten-storey building made of heavy masonry. Using this method, the weight of
the building was reduced, thus allowing the possibility to construct even taller structures.
Later, he solved the problem of fireproof construction for tall buildings by using masonry, iron,
and terracotta flooring and partitions. He displayed his system in the Leiter Building, also built in
Chicago between the years 1889 and 1891.
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Text 4: NIKOLAI V. NIKITIN
Nikolai Vasilyevich Nikitin was a construction engineer and structural designer of the Soviet
Union, best known for his monumental structures. Nikitin was born in Tobolsk, Siberia in 1907 to
the family of a typographical engineer. In 1930, Nikitin graduated from the Tomsk Technological
Institute with training in construction.
In 1932, he designed the train station of Novosibirsk. By 1937, he was living and working in
Moscow. He turned his attention to calculations and design of foundations and supporting structures.
In 1957 he was appointed chief designer of Mosproekt Institute for the Planning of Housing and
Civil Engineering Construction in the City of Moscow. Nikitin died on 3 March 1973.
His selected works are Moscow State University's 240 m high main building (at the time of its
construction it was the tallest building in Europe, built from 1949 to 1953); Luzhniki Stadium;
colossal 85- meter statue on the Mamayev Kurgan heights overlooking Volgograd, "The
Motherland Calls" and many others.
Among Nikitin's works — the Ostankino Tower — has got the most fame. Standing 540 metres
tall, it is a television and radio tower in Moscow. It is named after the Ostankino district of Moscow in
which it is located. Its construction began in 1963 and was completed in 1967. The tower was the
first free-standing structure to exceed 500 m in height. It surpassed the Empire State Building to
become the tallest free-standing structure in the world. The Ostankino Tower has remained the
tallest free-standing structure in Europe for 42 years.
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Text 5: CONSTRUCTION CAREERS
There are many routes to the different careers within the construction industry which vary by
country. However, there are three main tiers of careers based on educational background which are
common internationally:
unskilled and semi-skilled — general site labour with little or no construction qualifications;
skilled — on-site managers who possess extensive knowledge and experience in their craft or
profession;
technical and management — personnel with the greatest educational qualifications, usually
graduate degrees, trained to design, manage and instruct the construction process.
Skilled occupations in the UK require further education qualifications, often in vocational
subject areas. These qualifications are either obtained directly after the completion of compulsory education
or through "on the job" apprenticeship training. In the UK, 8500 construction-related apprenticeships
were commenced in 2007.
Technical and specialised occupations require more training as a greater technical knowledge is
required. The professions, like a civil engineer, a building services engineer, a project manager, a
quantity surveyor structural engineer and others hold more legal responsibility.
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Text 6: CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERS
Construction engineers engage in the design of temporary structures, quality assurance and
quality control, building and site layout surveys, on site material testing, concrete mix design, cost
estimating, planning and scheduling, safety engineering, materials procurement, and cost
engineering and budgeting.
To complete projects construction engineers rely on plans and specifications created by
architects, engineers and other constructors. During most of the 20th century structures have been
first designed then engineering staff ensure it is built to plans and specifications by testing and
overseeing the construction. Previous to the 20th century and more commonly since the start of the
21st century structures are designed and built in combination, allowing for site considerations and
construction methods to influence the design process.
Keeping a workplace safe is a key to having a successful construction company. It is the
construction engineer's job to make sure that everything is conducted correctly. Construction
engineers are also involved heavily with the construction schedule and document control as well as
budget and cost control. Their role on site is to provide construction information, including repairs,
requests for information, change orders and payment applications.
Construction engineers should have strong understanding for math and science, but many other
skills are required, including critical thinking, listening, learning, problem solving, monitoring and
decision making. Construction engineers have to be able to think about all aspects of a problem
and listen to others' ideas so that they can learn everything about a project before it begins. They must
maintain project control of labour and equipment for safety, to ensure the project is on schedule and
monitor quality control. When a problem occurs it is the construction engineer who will create and
enact a solution.
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Text 7: BUILDING
In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate development the word building may
refer to one of the following: any man-made structure used or intended for supporting or
sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or an act of construction. Buildings come in a wide
amount of shapes and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of
factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground
conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons. Buildings serve several needs of society — primarily as
shelter from weather and as general living space, to provide privacy, to store belongings and to
live and work.
Residential buildings are called houses/homes, though buildings containing large numbers of
separate dwelling units are often called apartment buildings/blocks to differentiate them from the
more "individual" house. Building types may range from one-room wood-framed, masonry, or adobe
dwellings to multi-million dollar high-rise buildings able to house thousands of people.
Increasing settlement density in buildings and closer distances between buildings is usually a
response to high ground prices resulting from many people wanting to live close to work or similar
attractors.
A multistoreyed building is a building that has multiple floors above ground in the building.
Multi-storey buildings aim to increase the area of the building without increasing the area of the
land the building is built on, hence saving land and, in most cases, money.
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Text 8: SKYSCRAPERS
A building many storeys high was first called a skyscraper in the 1880s in the United States. They
were developed in the last part of the 19th century as a result of technological advancement and the
social conditions at that time. They are now often referred to as high-rise buildings. The city of New
York set the skyscraper pattern. Because the ground beneath the city streets is rock, it is solid enough to
take the heaviest loads without subsiding as softer earth would do, and therefore it is well suited to
bearing the weight of tall buildings.
Architects and civil engineers all over the United States were experimenting, especially with steel
which was much lighter than iron. These tall buildings were required so that millions of people might
be able to live and work in a comparatively small area. If skyscrapers are built the population of a
whole town can live on quite a small plot of land. This is useful where land is expensive.
Skyscrapers have certain disadvantages. If they are built in a street of ordinary width, where the
people who work in them come pouring out at the end of the day, the street will be overcrowded.
Moreover, a skyscraper throws a long shadow, thereby keeping the sun from a great many people at
certain hours. Two skyscrapers built near one another would be apt to trap the fumes of petrol in the
space between them. To overcome these difficulties a scheme called zoning was introduced in the
United States in the 1930s, whereby skyscrapers had to be set a certain distance from other
buildings, depending on their height. Modern skyscrapers are usually built with open spaces,
pedestrian precincts, or shopping centres at street levels to make the surroundings more attractive.
Вариант 9
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Text 9: ROMAN CONCRETE
During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete was made from quicklime, pozzolana, and an
aggregate of pumice. Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was in effect a new and revolutionary
material. Laid in the shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free
from many of the internal thrusts and strains which trouble the builders of similar structures in stone
or brick.Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details. First, its
mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into forms rather than
requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate, which, in Roman practice, often
consisted of rubble. Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great
strength in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete
bonding to resist tension.
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many survive to the
present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example of the longevity of concrete, which
allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many Roman
aqueducts and Roman bridges have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in
structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete.
The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton
pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.
Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s.
Вариант 10
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Text 10: FROM THE HISTORY OF BRICKMAKING
Bricks were first used for building in the Middle East. More than 6,000 years ago the Sumerian
people living in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers discovered that the muddy clay deposited
by the two rivers was ideal for building. The clay was mixed with water and straw and pressed into
rectangular moulds. The bricks were then turned out of the moulds and left to dry in the sun. Sundried bricks such as these, known as abode after the clay from which they are made, are still used
for building in warm, dry regions throughout Africa and South America. Adobe is cheap and can
last for centuries.
The next development in the history of brickmaking came around 4,000 years ago when the brick
kiln was invented in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Brickmakers found that if bricks were
fired after they had been dried in the sun, they were harder and better able to withstand damp. The
earliest type of kiln was a beehive-shaped mound of dried bricks with arches at the bottom in which
the fires could be lit. Later kilns were permanent buildings in which the bricks were slowly heated
up and allowed to cool over a period of four days.
From the Middle East, the ancient craft of brickmaking spread westward to Egypt and the
Mediterranean and eastward to India and China. Roman builders brought bricks to Britain in the
1st century AD, but when the Roman Empire fell in the 5th century, the art of brickmaking was lost
for some 600 years. It was revived by the Italians in the 11th century and spread quickly throughout
northern Europe. By the mid-17th century brick-built walls were replacing the old timber
frameworks in buildings.
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Text 11: THE ELASTIC THEORY OF STRUCTURES
A significant achievement of the first industrial age was the emergence of building science,
particularly the elastic theory of structures. With it, mathematical models could be used to predict
structural performance with considerable accuracy, provided there was adequate quality control of the
materials used. Although some elements of the elastic theory, such as the Swiss mathematician
Leonhard Euler's theory of column buckling (1757), were worked out earlier, the real development
began with the English scientist Thomas Young's modern definition of the modulus of elasticity in
1807. Louis Navier published the elastic theory of beams in 1826, and three methods of analyzing
forces in trusses were devised by Squire Whipple, A. Ritter, and James Clerk Maxwell between
1847 and 1864. The concept of a statically determinate structure — that is, a structure whose forces
could be determined from Newton's laws of motion alone — was set forth by Otto Mohr in 1874, after
having been used intuitively for perhaps 40 years. Most 19th-century structures were purposely designed
and fabricated with pin joints to be statically determinate; it was not until the 20th century that
statically indeterminate structures became readily solvable. The elastic theory formed the basis of
structural analysis until World War II, when bomb-damaged buildings were observed to behave in
unpredicted ways and the underlying assumptions of the theory were found to require modification.
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Text 12: NANOTECHNOLODY'S FOR REAL IN THE BUILDING INDUSTRY
Nanotechnology is sometimes seen as all hype, with little real-world application. But
nanomaterials are already all around us. Take the buildings that we live and work in, for instance.
You will find nanotechnology used to create stronger steel, self-cleaning glass, solar-collecting
fabrics, and even smog-eating concrete. And not only are these nanomaterials present in our
buildings, they are making them better places to live and work.
Self-cleaning glass has a nanoparticle coating dirt can't stick to, eliminating the need for
expensive and dangerous manual window washing on tall buildings. Solar-collecting fabric is the
first of a new wave of building components that convert solar radiation into electricity. That means
no more applying unattractive solar panels to the roof, but instead integrating energy production into
building facades. Nanocomposite steel is more corrosion resistant than conventional steel, and can
reduce installation costs by up to 50%. And the quantity required to make a building may be up to
40% less than conventional steel. Smog-eating concrete is produced by applying a nanolayer of
titanium dioxide to concrete, which triggers a catalytic reaction that destroys many pollutants in
contact with the surface. At the very least, these materials reduce building maintenance costs,
leaving more money for other improvements, and they can help clean up the environment. They
can reduce energy costs as well. And for every nanomaterial available today, there are approximately
seventy more in research and development, meaning that building construction and architecture are
in for some big changes thanks to small technology.
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. Text 13: A HORIZONTAL SUPPORT
A beam is a structural component mainly working in bending through the agency of vertical forces
and that transmits to the bearing points the loads that are applied to it. A beam is a lengthened and
horizontal support made of metal, wood, reinforced or prestressed concrete and whose section has
been studied for a good bending strength. Beams are mainly subjected to bending moments and
shearing forces. Simple beams are made up of only one piece, of a section calculated to withstand
the strains that aim at making them bending. When the strains become too strong, reinforced
beams or compound beams are then used. Beams rest:
- either on a bearing with restraint (cantilever) or are restrained at both ends (exceptional);
- either on a cantilever and are then presented as continuous beams to which have been added a
number of extra articulations in order to free oneself of the consequences of the difference in level
of the supports;
- either on two free bearings, free and restrained; they are independent or isostatic beams. These
beams work on the positive bending moment in the middle of span and with simple shearing force
on bearing;
- either on several bearings (beam in continuity); they are continuous or hyperstatic beams.
This type of beam bears on one hand a positive bending moment much weaker than an independent
beam; but, on the other hand, when on bearing, it bears an important negative bending moment as
well as the shearing force.
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Text 14: ROOF
The roof of a building often reflects the climate of the place in which the building is located since
it protects the people in it from rain and sun. In dry countries the roof is flat and can be used as an
outdoor room when the sun is not too hot. Where it often rains the roof usually slopes so that the wet
can run off it, and where there are snowfalls, the roof slopes steeply so that the snow will slide off and
not build up into a thick layer. A roof that slopes is called a pitched roof. After a time people found it
inconvenient to live in a house with sloping sides, so they built upright walls and laid big beams
called tie-beams across the top at regular distances from each other. Then they put up the triangular
frameworks resting on the tie-beams. These triangles of beams are called trusses. A ridge-piece,
purlins, and rafters were used to complete the skeleton of the roof.
In the Middle Ages the wooden frame of the roof was not hidden by a ceiling on the inside and was
often richly decorated. To increase the effect of height and space the hammer-beam roof was designed.
This had no tie-beams, but instead there were short beams sticking out from both walls, and to these
beams other timbers called struts were fixed to support the main rafters.
The waterproof covering of a pitched roof is usually of tiles, slates, or shingles. Tiles are thin
slabs of baked clay, generally red or brown in colour. Strips of wood called battens are fixed to the
outside of the rafters, usually over sheets of weatherproof roofing -felt which help to keep out
draughts and wind-blown snow. The tiles, shingles, or slates are then hung on by projecting pieces
called nibs, or nailed or clipped to the battens in regular horizontal rows or courses. Flat roofs
usually consist of boards covered with overlapping sheets of roofing felt coated with bitumen.
When a roof has to cover a large space, steel trusses are used instead of wood. Large flat roofs may
be made of reinforced concrete with a waterproof covering.
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Text 15: STRUCTURAL BUILDING ENGINEERING
Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of buildings.
It is the branch of structural engineering that is close to architecture. Structural building
engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and the
underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional
requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be expected
to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the creative
manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, texture and light to achieve an end which is
aesthetic, functional and often artistic.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely, able to
function without deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural elements, cracking or
failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must account for
movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and imposed loads. It must also ensure that
the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of the materials. It must
allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the building and function (air
conditioning, ventilation, electrics, etc). The structural design of a modem building can be
extremely complex, and often requires a large team to complete.
Вариант 16
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Text 16: STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
Structural engineers analyse, design, plan, and research structural components and structural
systems to achieve design goals and ensure the safety and comfort of users or occupants. Their work
takes account of safety, technical, economic and environmental concerns, but they may also consider
aesthetic and social factors.
Typical structures designed by a structural engineer include buildings, towers and bridges. Other
structures such as oil rigs, space satellites, aircraft and ships may also be designed by a structural
engineer. Most structural engineers are employed in the construction industry, however there are
also structural engineers in the aerospace, automobile and shipbuilding industries. In the
construction industry, they work closely with architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers,
electrical engineers, surveyors, and construction managers.
Structural engineers ensure that buildings and bridges are built to be strong enough and stable
enough to resist all appropriate structural loads in order to prevent or reduce loss of life or injury.
They also design structures to be stiff enough to not deflect or vibrate beyond acceptable limits. Fatigue
maybe an important consideration for bridges and for aircraft design, or for other structures which
experience a large number of stress cycles over their lifetime. Consideration is also given to
durability of materials against possible deterioration which may impair performance over the design
lifetime.
Вариант 17
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Text 17: SURVEYING AS A CAREER
The basic principles of surveying have changed little over the ages, but the tools used by
surveyors have evolved tremendously. Engineering, especially civil engineering, depends heavily
on surveyors.
Whenever there are roads, railways, reservoir, dams, retaining walls, bridges or residential areas to
be built, surveyors are involved. They establish the boundaries of legal descriptions and the boundaries of
various lines of political divisions. They also provide advice and data for geographical information
systems, computer databases that contain data on land features and boundaries.
Surveyors must have a thorough knowledge of algebra, basic calculus, geometry, and
trigonometry. They must also know the laws that deal with surveys, property, and contracts. In
addition, they must be able to use delicate instruments with accuracy and precision. In the United
States, surveyors and civil engineers use units of feet wherein a survey foot is broken down into
lOths and lOOths.
In most states of the U.S., surveying is recognized as a distinct profession apart from engineering.
Licensing requirements vary by state, however these requirements generally all have a component of
education, experience and examinations. In the past, experience gained through an apprenticeship,
together with passing a series of state-administered examinations, was required to attain licensure.
Nowadays, most states insist upon basic qualification of a degree in surveying in addition to
experience and examination requirements.
Вариант 18
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Text 18: MODERN THEODOLITES
In today's theodolites, the reading out of the horizontal and vertical circles is usually done
electronically. The readout is done by a rotary encoder, which can be absolute, e.g. using Gray codes,
or incremental, using equidistant light and dark radial bands. In the latter case the circles spin
rapidly, reducing angle measurement to electronic measurement of time differences. Additionally,
lately computer-controlled display sensors have been added to the focal plane of the telescope
allowing both auto-targeting and the automated measurement of residual target offset. All this is
implemented in embedded software.
Also, many modern theodolites, costing up to $10,000 apiece, are equipped with integrated
electro-optical distance measuring devices, generally infrared based, allowing the measurement in
one go of complete three-dimensional vectors which can then be transformed to a pre-existing coordinate system in the area by means of a sufficient number of control points. This technique is
called a resection solution or free station position surveying and is widely used in mapping
surveying. The instruments, "intelligent" theodolites called self-registering tacheometers or "total
stations", perform the necessary operations, saving data into internal registering units, or into
external data storage devices. Typically, ruggedized laptops are used as data collectors for this
purpose.
Вариант 19
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Text 19: FOUNDATIONS OF LOW-RISE BUILDINGS
All foundations must transmit the building loads to a stable stratum of earth. There are two criteria for
stability: first, the soil under the foundations should be able to receive the imposed load without
more than about 2.5 centimetres of settlement and, second, the settlement should be uniform under
the entire building. It is also important that the bottom of the foundation be below the maximum
winter frost level. Wet soil expands as it freezes, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles can move the
building up and down, leading to possible displacement and damage. Maximum frost depth varies
with climate and topography. It can be as deep as 1.5 metres in cold continental climates and is zero
in tropical and some subtropical areas.
The foundation systems for low-rise residential buildings are suitable for their light loads;
nearly all are supported on spread footings, which are of two types — continuous footings that
support walls and isolated pad footings that support concentrated loads. The footings themselves
are usually made of concrete poured directly on undisturbed soil to a minimum depth of about 30
centimetres.
Foundation walls can be built of reinforced concrete or masonry, particularly concrete block.
Concrete blocks are of a standard size larger than bricks and are hollow, forming a grid of vertical
planes. They are the least expensive form of masonry — using cheap but strong material — and
their large size economizes on the labour required to lay them. Their appearance and weathering
properties are inferior to those of fired masonry, but they are satisfactory for foundation walls, in
some places timber foundation walls and spread footings are used. Excavation for foundations is the
most highly mechanized operation in this building type; it is done almost entirely with bulldozers and
backhoes.
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Text 20: PIPE PILES
Pipe piles are a type of steel driven pile foundation and are a good candidate for battered piles.
Pipe piles can be driven either open end or closed end. When driven open end, soil is allowed to
enter the bottom of the pipe or tube. If an empty pipe is required, a jet of water or an auger can be
used to remove the soil inside following driving. Closed end pipe piles are constructed by covering the
bottom of the pile with a steel plate or cast steel shoe. In some cases, pipe piles are filled with
concrete to provide additional moment capacity or corrosion resistance.
In the United Kingdom, this is not generally done in order to reduce the cost. In these cases,
corrosion protection is provided by allowing for a sacrificial thickness of steel or by adopting a higher
grade of steel. If a concrete filled pipe pile is corroded, most of the load carrying capacity of the pile
will remain intact due to the concrete, while it will be lost in an empty pipe pile.
The structural capacity of pipe piles is primarily calculated based on steel strength and concrete
strength (if filled). The thickness of the steel considered for determining capacity is typically reduced
by 1/16 in. compared to the actual pipe to account for corrosion. Steel pipe piles can either be new
steel manufactured specifically for the piling industry or reclaimed steel tubular casing previously
used for other purposes such as oil and gas exploration.
Вариант 21
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Text 21: MASONRY WALLS
Structural masonry walls are primarily used in multistoreyed buildings, where they offer greater
load-bearing capacity and fire resistance. Brick and concrete block are the major materials, brick
being favoured for exterior surfaces because of its appearance and durability. Solid brick walls are
rarely used due to the higher labour and material costs; composite walls of brick and block or block
alone are common.
Cavity walls are used in colder climates; in these, two with vertical layers of masonry are built on
either side of a layer of rigid insulation. The wythes are joined together by steel reinforcement that
runs through the insulation and is laid in the horizontal masonry joints at intervals. Cavity walls have a
heat-flow rate that is 50 percent of that of a solid wall. Timber floor and roof construction, similar to
balloon framing, is used with masonry construction; and there is also some use of precast
prestressed hollow concrete panels which are fireproof and can span up to nine metres.
Вариант 22
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Text 22:VENEER MASONRY
A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or
both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this
context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural.
The brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brickties (metal strips that are
attached to the structural wall, as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer). There is typically
an air gap between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick is usually not
completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface (usually tar
paper) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick veneer to drain moisture that
accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are
sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion.
Most insulated buildings that utilize concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some
combination thereof feature interior insulation in the form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall
studs or in the form of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or dry wall. In most climates
this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to
take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does, however,
require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over the insulation and, consequently, is
generally more expensive.
Вариант 23
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Text 23: INTERIOR FINISHES OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
Interior finishes and space-division systems define the living spaces within residential buildings
with a range of both natural and synthetic materials. The most widely used wall finish is gypsum
board, a prefabricated form of traditional wet plaster. Wet gypsum plaster is cast between paper
facings to form large panels that are nailed to light timber or metal frameworks. The joints between
the panels are filled with a hard-setting resin compound, giving a smooth seamless surface that has
considerable fire resistance. Gypsum board forms the substrate to which a number of other materials,
including thin wood-veneered plywood and vinyl fabrics, can be applied with adhesives. In wet areas
such as kitchens and bathrooms, water-resistant gypsum board is used, sometimes with the addition of
adhesive-applied ceramic tile.
Doors in residential buildings are usually of the hollow, core type, with thin veneers of wood
glued over a honey-comb paper core and solid wood edge strips: door frames are typically made of
machined timber shapes. Plastic laminates bonded to particleboard are extensively used for built-in
cabinets and countertops. The most common floor finish is carpeting, most of which is now made of
synthetic fibres, displacing the traditional wool and cotton. It can be easily maintained and its soft
visual and tactile texture as well as its sound-absorbing qualities make it attractive for residential use.
Hardwoods — primarily oak, birch, and maple — are also used for floors, both in the traditional
narrow planks nailed to plywood decks and as prefabricated parquet elements which are applied with
adhesives. In wet or hard-use areas vinyl-composition tiles or ceramic tiles are used.
Вариант 24
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Text 24: PLASTER SLABS
For partitions and ceilings, plaster slabs are now in general use when work has to be finished
quickly. For ceilings they require simply to be nailed to the joists, the joints being made with plaster,
and the whole finished with a thin setting coat. In some cases, with fireproof floors, for instance,
the slabs are hung up with wire hangers so as to allow a space of several inches between the soffit of
the concrete floor and the ceiling. For partitions the slabs frequently have the edges tongued and
grooved to form a better connection; often, too, they are holed through vertically, so that, when
grouted in with semi-fluid plaster, the whole partition is bound together, as it were, with plaster
dowels. Where very great strength is required the work may be reinforced by small iron rods through
the slabs. This forms a very strong and rigid partition which is at the same time fire-resisting and of
lightweight, and when finished measures only from two to four inches (102 mm) thick.
The slabs may be obtained either with a keyed surface, which requires finishing with a setting
coat when the partition or ceiling is in position, or a smooth finished face, which may be papered
or painted immediately the joints have been carefully made. Partitions are also formed with one or
other of the forms of metal lathing fixed to iron uprights and plastered on both sides. So strong is the
result that partitions of this class only two or three inches (76 mm) thick were used for temporary
cells for prisoners at Newgate Gaol during the rebuilding of the new sessions house in the Old Bailey
in London.
Список источников:
1.
Рогова.Г.В., Рожкова Ф.М. Английский язык за два года. 6-е изд., Москва,
«Просвещение», 1998, 384с.
2.
Программа, методические указания и контрольные задания для студентовзаочников средних специальных учебных заведений. Составители: Кучин Н.Д.,
Новицкая Т.М., 3-е изд., Москва, «Высшая школа», 2002, 120 с.
3.
Авторские разработки по английскому языку для студентов средних
специальных учебных заведений.
4.
Гарагуля С.И., Английский язык для студентов строительных
специальностей, Learning Building Construction in English, Москва, «Высшая
школа», 2011.
Интернет-ресурсы:
http// www. engmaster. ru/ - сайт по изучению английского языка
Контрольную работу составил (а) преподаватель первой квалификационной
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Макарова О.С.
(Фамилия И.О.)
Контрольная работа обсуждена на заседании ПЦК цикла социальноэкономических дисциплин
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Сероштанова С.В.
(Фамилия И.О.)