Download 2º bachillerato: grammar review

GETTING STARTED
PRESENT SIMPLE
FORMS
A: I
He/she/it
You/we/they
USE
work.
works.
work.
TIME PHRASES
1-to talk about general truth and
permanent actions(facts):
N: I
do not (don’t) work.
He/she/it
does not (doesn’t) work_.
You/we/they do not (don’t) work.
Q: Do
I
work?
Does he/she/it
work_?
Do
you/we/they work?
The Earth rotates round its axis.
It rains a lot in autumn.
speak English and French.
I
2-to talk about repeated,
customary actions:
He gets up at 8 o’clock every morning.
They never listen to their teacher.
3-to talk about a planned future
action (a timetable or schedule )
always, every
day/month/year
never, often,
normally,
seldom,
sometimes,
usually, twice a
week/day…,
all the time
The train leaves at 3 tomorrow.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
FORMS
to be (am/is/are) + verb + -ing
A: I
He/she/is
You/we/they
am (I’m) working.
is (he’s) working.
are (we’re) working.
N: I
am not (I’m not) working.
He/she/it
is not (isn’t)
working.
You/we/they/ are not (aren’t) working.
Q: Am
Is
Are
I
working?
he/she/we
working?
you/we/they working?
USE
1-to talk about actions that are
happening now, at the moment of
speaking:
Look!
The boys are playing football. Hurry up!
The train is coming.
2- to talk about actions that are
happening around now, but not
exactly at the moment of speaking:
We are studying very hard these
days. We have to prepare for our
exams.
3-to speak about what you have
already arranged to do:
-What are you doing on Saturday?
-I am meeting my friend at the
station.
She is
arriving at 8 pm.
TIME PHRASES
now,
at the moment,
at present;
Look!, Listen!
these days,
this morning,
today
1
PAST SIMPLE
FORMS
Regular verbs + ed : worked, played,
Irregular verbs – II column: went, ate
A: I
worked /went.
He/she/it
worked/went.
You/we/they
worked/went .
N: I
did not (didn’t) work_/go.
He/she/it
did not (didn’t) work_/go.
You/we/they did not (didn’t) work_/go.
Q: Did I
work_/go?
Did he/she/it
work_/go?
Did you/we/they work_/go?
USE
TIME PHRASES
1-to talk about actions performed
in the past (with finished time
expressions):
I met my friend yesterday.
Did you go to the seaside last
summer?
2-to talk about a succession of
past actions (stories):
He opened the door, switched on
the light and fed his cat.
3- to talk about an action taking
place in the middle of another
action:
He fell asleep while the teacher was
explaining new grammar rules.
yesterday,
2minutes/hours/
days/years ago,
in 1970,
the other day,
last month/year/
week/ Sunday
PAST CONTINUOUS
FORMS
to be(was/were) + verb + -ing
A: I
was
working.
He/she/it
was
working.
You/we/they
were
working.
N: I
was not (wasn’t) working.
He/she/it
was not (wasn’t) working.
You/we/they were not (weren’t) working.
Q: Was
Was
Were
I
working?
he/she/it
working?
you/we/they working?
USE
1-to talk about a temporary
action taking place at a given
moment in the past:
What were you doing at 6 o’clock
yesterday?
2-two or more actions happening
at the same time in the past:
She was cooking dinner and her
kids were watching TV.
3- action interrupted by another
shorter action in the past:
I was working on computer when
the telephone rang.
4- background information in a
story:
The sun was shining and the birds
were singing…
TIME PHRASES
at 6 o’clock
yesterday, from
3 to 6 On
Monday, when
Mum came,
while
2
FUTURE SIMPLE
FORMS
A: I/we
shall*/ will
He/she/it will
You/they will
N: I/we
work.
work.
work.
shall not (shan’t) * work
will not (won’t)
work.
He/she/it
You/they
Q: Shall/will
Will
Will
will not (won’t) work.
will not (won’t) work.
I/we
he/she/it
you/they
work?
work?
work?
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I…?/shall we…?
In spoken English we normally use I’ll
and we’ll.
USE
TIME PHRASES
1-to talk about future actions:
I’ll call you tomorrow.
Mary will get a present next month.
tomorrow,
the day after
tomorrow,
one of these
days,
next
week/month/
year etc., soon,
in the near
future,
some day,
in two days/five
minutes/a month
etc.
2-to predict the future
(with probably, I expect...,
I'm sure..., (I) think..., don't
think, I wonder..., perhaps)
I think it will rain tomorrow.
Perhaps she'll be late.
I don't think the exam will be
very difficult.
3- to express intention at the
moment of decision:
Do you like these shoes?
- Yes, I'll buy them.
4-in the 1st type of
conditional sentences
If the weather is fine, we’ll go
to the country.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
FORMS
A: I/we
shall*/will be working.
He/she/it will
be working.
You/they will
be working.
N: I/we
shall not (shan’t) *be working.
will not (won’t)
be working.
He/she/it will not (won’t) be working.
You/they will not (won’t) be working.
Q: Shall/will I/we
be working?
Will
he/she/it be working?
Will
you/they be working?
USE
TIME PHRASES
1- to talk about an action at a
particular moment in the future.
The action will start before that
moment but it will not have
finished at that moment:
I will be playing tennis at 10am
tomorrow.
This time on Sunday I'll be bathing
in the sea.
When you arrive, he will be waiting
for you.
at 5 o’clock
tomorrow, this
time on Sunday,
when I come
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the questions
shall I…?/shall we…?
In spoken English we normally use I’ll
and we’ll.
3
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
FORMS
have/has +participle II
- regular verbs +ed
worked, asked
-irregular verbs-III column gone, eaten
A: I/we/you/they have worked/gone.
He/she/it
has
worked/gone.
N: I/we/you/they have not (haven’t)
worked/gone.
He/she/it
has not (hasn’t) worked/gone.
Q: Have
Has
I/we/you/they
worked/gone?
he/she/it
worked/gone?
USE
It is always connected with the
present and the only thing
which matters here is the
result: the time when the
action took place is of no
importance:
I have lost my keys. I can’t open
the door.
1-to talk about a completed
action connected with the
present:
I have seen this film and I can
discuss it with you now.
2-questions in the Present
Perfect never start with when:
When did you see this film?
3-with this morning/evening,
today this week, this year
(when the time periods are not
finished at the time of
speaking):
Have you called you mother
today?
TIME PHRASES
already, ever,
just, never, not
yet, so far, till
now, up to now
, of late, lately,
recently; with
for and since;
with This is the
first time … this
morning/
evening, today,
this week, this
year
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
FORMS
had +participle II
- regular verbs +ed :
worked, asked
-irregular verbs-III column: gone, eaten
A:
I/you/we/they had worked/gone.
He/she/it
had worked/gone.
N: I/we/you/we/they had not (hadn’t)
worked/gone.
He/she it
had not (hadn’t) worked/gone.
Q: Had I/you/we/they worked/gone?
Had he/she/it
worked/gone?
USE
TIME PHRASES
1-denotes an action completed before
a certain moment in the past; it is not
used to denote a succession of actions
(Past Simple):
She had already finished her work
when he came.
But: When I wrote the letter, I posted
it.(Past Simple – succession of actions)
By the time the police arrived ,he had
already disappeared.
2-with the
conjunctions(hardly/scarcely/
nearly/barely + when…)
I had hardly done it when they came.
No sooner had they arrived than it
started to rain.
when I
entered, by 5
o’clock
yesterday,
(with the
same adverbs
as Present
Perfect but in
the past
context); no
sooner…than
…
4
FUTURE PERFECT
FORMS
USE
shall/will + have +participle II
A: I/we
shall*/will have worked/gone.
He/she/it will
have worked/gone.
You/they will
have worked/gone.
TIME PHRASES
1-denotes an action completed before a
definite moment in the future:
She will have finished this work by 2 o’clock
tomorrow.
The film will have already started by the time
we come .Hurry up!
N: I/we
shall not (shan’t) * have
worked/gone.
will not (won’t)
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the
questions shall I…?/shall
we…?
In spoken English we normally use
I’ll and we’ll.
He/she/it will not (won’t)
You/they will not (won’t) have
worked/gone.
Q: Shall/will I/we
worked/gone?
Will
he/she/it
worked/gone?
Will
you/they
worked/gone?
have
have
by this time
tomorrow, by
2 o’clock
tomorrow,
when you
come back
have
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORMS
shall/will + have + been+ verb + -ing
A: I/we
shall/will * have been working.
He/she/it will
have been working.
You/they will
have been working.
N: I/we shall not (shan’t)* have been working.
will not (won’t)
He/she/it will not (won’t) have been working.
You/they will not (won’t) have been working.
Q: Shall/will I/we
Will
he/she/it
Will
you/they
USE
1-denotes an action which will begin
before a definite moment in the
future, will continue up to the
moment and will be going on at that
moment:
You will have been waiting for more
than two hours when her plane finally
arrives.
In the fall I will have been studying
here for 2 years.
He will be tired when he arrives. He will
have been travelling for 24 hours.
TIME
PHRASES
for
have been working?
have been working?
have been working?
*NOTE!!!
Shall is used mostly in the
questions shall I…?/shall
we…?
In spoken English we normally use
I’ll and we’ll.
5
UNIT 1
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORMS
have/has + been + verb + -ing
A: I we/you/they have been working.
He/she/it
has been working.
N: I/we/you/they have not (haven’t) been
working.
He/she/it
has not (hasn’t)
been
working.
Q: Have
Has
I/we/you/they been working?
he/she/it
been working?
USE
1-to say how long things have
been continuing up to now:
I’ve been learning English for six
years.
It’s been raining all day.
TIME PHRASES
for, since; How
long…?
2-to say how we have been
filling our time (up to now)
-Your hands are dirty.
-I’ve been painting the walls.
NOTE!!! We don’t use
Present Perfect Cont. with
be, know , have and other
non-progressive verbs:
How long have you had your
car? (Present Perfect)
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORMS
had + been + verb + -ing
A: I /we/you/they had been working.
He/she/it
had been working.
N: I/we/you/they had not (hadn’t) been working.
He/she/it
had not (hadn’t) been working.
Q: Had I/we/you/they been working?
Had he/she/it
been working?
USE
1-denotes an action which began
before a definite moment in the past,
continued up to that moment and was
still going on at the moment:
We could not go out because it had
been raining for two hours.
2-denotes an action which was no
longer going on at a definite moment
in the past, but which had been in
progress not long before: The baby’s
face was red and wet. He had been
crying.
TIME
PHRASES
since, for
6
NOUN SUFFIXES
Nouns from adjectives
-ness is one of a number of noun suffixes. It is used to make nouns from adjectives.:
happy
sad
weak
good
ready
tidy
forgetful
-ity is another noun suffix that is formed from adjectives.
possible
probable
responsible
complex
hilarious
scarce
Nouns from verbs
-tion, or, less frequently -sion (both pronounced with a 'sh' sound on the initial letter) are noun suffixes
that are used to make nouns from verbs.
admit
alter
inform
decide
describe
multiply
Note that adjustments that are necessary to the spelling in each case:
Admission
Information
Description
Alteration
Decision
multiplication
-er /-or (person who does the action of the verb)
sail
work
paint
run
teach
law
Nouns from verbs and adjectives
-ment is another suffix that is used to make nouns from verbs and occasionally from adjectives:
enjoy
replace
appoint
arrange
merry
-ance and -ence are suffixes that are used to make nouns from adjectives and sometimes from verbs:
absent
silent
independent
important
admit
appear exist
More restrictive noun suffixes (nouns from nouns)
-ship (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of relationships)
Relationshi
friendship
partnership
membership
-hood (abstract nouns denoting different kinds of 'families')
childhood
motherhood
neighbourhood
priesthood
ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
-ous: danger, fame
-al: music, politics, economics, industry
-y: cloud, fog, sun, dirt
-ive: attract, create
Note: Sometimes there is a spelling change. Here are common examples:
double the consonant,
leave out the final’s’ before ‘al’,
 sun/sunny,
 politics/political;
 fog/foggy
 economics/economical
leave out the final ‘e’,
change ‘y’ to ‘i’ before ‘al’,
 create/creative,
 industry/industrial
 fame/famous
-able
This suffix (also -ible in some words . Quite often, -able (and -ible) has the meaning ‘can be done’.
Enjoy
confort
knowledge
suit
wash
drink
Words ending -able quite often express the opposite meaning by adding the prefix un-, words ending ible add the prefix in-.
-ful often means ‘full of + th.e meaning of the adjective:
Care
helpful
pain
thought
-less means ‘without’ + the meaning of the adjective:
Care
pain
use
thought
job
home
-ate means full or showing a particular quality:
Consider
affection
for
7
UNIT 2
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
There are three types of the if-clauses.
Form
Type
1st (condition possible to fulfill)
2nd (condition improbable to fulfill)
3rd (condition impossible to fulfil)
if clause
Simple Present
Past simple
Past Perfect
main clause
will-future (or Modal + infinitive)
would + infinitive *
would + have + past participle *
Examples: 1st : If you buy the cake, I will bring the sandwiches.
2nd: If Sam read the book, he would like it
3rd: If the museum had opened the exhibition, we would have visited it today.
The sentence containing “if” can be the first or the second.
If I study, I will pass the exam. / I will pass the exam if I study.
If I were there by six o’clock, I would drive you to the airport.
I would drive you to the airport if I were there by six.
* We can substitute would for could or might (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too).
So far you have only learned the basic rules for Conditional Sentences. Depending on the context other
tenses different to the ones mentioned above can be used.
Conditional Sentences Type I (likely)
Condition
IF Clause
refers to:
future action
action going on
now
finished action
Simple Present
Present
Progressive
Present Perfect
If the book is
interesting, …
If he is snoring, …
If he has moved into his
new flat, …
Main Clause
Future I
…I will buy it.
Imperative
…buy it.
Modal
Auxiliary
…you can buy it.
Future I
…I will wake him up.
Imperative
…wake him up.
Modal
Auxiliary
…you can wake him
up.
Future I
…we will visit him.
Imperative
…visit him.
Modal
Auxiliary
…we can visit him.
Future I
…I will congratulate
her.
improbable
action
should +
Infinitive
If she should win this
race, …
Imperative
…congratulate her.
Modal
Auxiliary
…we can
congratulate her.
present facts
Simple Present
If he gets what he
wants, …
Simple
Present
…he is very nice.
8
Conditional Sentences Type II (unlikely)
Condition refers to:
IF Clause
present / future
event
Simple
Past
If I had a lot of
money, …
Main Clause
Conditional I
…I would travel around the
world.
Conditional
II
…I would have said hello.
consequence in the
Simple
If I knew him, …
past
Past
Conditional Sentences Type III (impossible)
Condition refers
IF Clause
to:
Main Clause
present
Past
Perfect
If I had known it, …
Conditional I
…I would not be here
now.
past
Past
Perfect
If he had learned for the
test, …
Conditional
II
…he would not have
failed it.
INVERSION IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Inversion in conditions is possible, in this case, they are more formal than the usual constructions.
In the first conditional, inversion can be applied using should:
If you feel hungry,.
If you should feel hungry,. (should form of the condition clause)
Should you feel hungry, you can eat what you want.(inverted form)
In the second conditional, inversion is possible in the case where the verb is were:
If she were here, everything would be easier. (usual condition clause)
Were she here, everything would be easier. (inverted form)
In the third conditional, the condition clause formed with the auxiliary had can be inverted:
If he had listened the message,. (usual condition clause)
Had he listened the message, he would have arrived on time. (inverted form)
WISH
There are three distinct types of I wish / if only sentences:
1. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past.
If only I knew how to use a computer.
Use: To express a wish in the present or in the future.
The simple past here is an unreal past.
When you use the verb to be the form is “were”.
Example: I wish I were a millionaire!
2. Regret with the past perfect.
I wish I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my bus.)
Use: To express a regret.
The action is past.
3. Complaints with would + verb.
I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always come late and I
want you to arrive on time)
Use: To complain about a behavior that you disapprove.
Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.
TIME CLAUSES
Time clauses referring to the future are formed like the first conditional (present simple in the
subordinate clause and future simple in the main clause). What we change are the conjunctions.
as long as
the moment (that)
until
before
by the time
as soon as
when
Examples: I will phone you when I arrive
By the time she arrives, we will order the food.
9
UNIT 3
THE PASSIVE
Passive voice is used when the important information is on the action and not on the person who does it.
How to transform a sentence into the passive?
Active form: subject + verb + object + complements
Passive form: subject + passive verb + complements + by + agent
How to turn a verb into the passive?
Active: the verb is written in the right verbal tense
Passive:‘to be’ (verbal tense of the active verb + past participle.
Example: The students finished the project on time.
The project was finished on time by the students
THE VERB: FROM ACTIVE TO PASSIVE
SIMPLE TENSES
Present
Past
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
ACTIVE
Bill buys the dinner.
Bill bought the dinner.
Bill will buy the dinner.
Bill has bought the dinner.
Bill had bought the dinner.
PASSIVE
The dimmer is bought by Bill.
The dinner was bought by Bill
The dinner will be bought by Bill.
The dinner has been bought by Bill.
The dinner had been bought by Bill.
CONTINUOUS
TENSES
Present
Past
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Bill is buying the dinner.
Bill was buying the dinner.
Bill will be buying the dinner.
Bill has been buying the dinner.
Bill had been buying the dinner.
The dimmer is being bought by Bill.
The dinner was being bought by Bill.
The dinner will be being bought by Bill.
The dinner has been being bought by Bill.
The dinner had been being bought by Bill.
MODAL
Can
Could
Might
May
Have to
Must
Should
Ought to
ACTIVE
The boy can open the box.
The boy could open the box.
The boy might open the box.
The boy may open the box.
The boy has to open the box.
The boy must open the box.
The boy should open the box.
The boy ought to open the box.
PASSIVE
The box can be opened by the boy.
The box could be opened by the boy.
The box might be opened by the boy.
The box may be opened by the boy.
The box has to be opened by the boy.
The box must be opened by the boy.
The box should be opened by the boy.
The box ought to be opened by the boy.
MODAL
PERFECT
Can
Could
Might
May
Must
Should
Ought to
ACTIVE
The boy can have opened the box.
The boy could have opened the box.
The boy might have opened the box.
The boy may have opened the box.
The boy must have opened the box.
The boy should have opened the box.
The boy ought to have opened the box.
PASSIVE
The box can have been opened by the boy.
The box could have been opened by the boy.
The box might have been opened by the boy.
The box may have been opened by the boy.
The box must have been opened by the boy.
The box should have been opened by the boy.
The box ought to have been opened by the boy.
10
VERBS WITH PREPOSION IN PASSIVE
When a verb is followed by a preposition in the active, the preposition is put right behind the verb in the
passive.
Martin looked after the children yesterday.
The children were looked after yesterday by Martin.
A burglar has brought into the house.
The house has been broken into by a burglar.
PASSIVE WITH TWO OBJECTS
If there are two objects (direct and indirect) in the active sentence, each of them can be the subject of the
passive voice. An indirect object is usually a person and the direct object a thing.
Michael sent Paula a message yesterday.
Michael sent a message to Paula
Passive using indirect object as
subject:
Paula was sent a message by Michael.
(It is called personal passive)
NOTE: when the indirect object (Paula) follows the direct
one (a message), the personal object is preceded by ‘to’
Passive using direct object as subject:
A message was sent to Paula by Michael.
(The indirect object is preceded by ‘to’)
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
Intransitive verbs (verbs without an object) cannot usually form a passive sentence as there is no object
to be the subject, so if we want to do a passive construction, we need an impersonal structure. This kind
of sentence doesn’t exist in other languages (Spanish, German, etc)
STRUCTURE: There are two structures to make this kind of passive:
1. It + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + by + agent + that + subordinate clause.
2. Subject of the subordinate clause + to be + past participle of the intransitive verb + to +
infinitive clause+ by + the teacher
SOME
INTRANSITIVE
VERBS
SAY
BELIEVE
THINK
CONSIDER
EXPECT
KNOW
HOPE
LET’S SEE SOME EXAMPLES:
Active: 1.They say that Mary was in Rome.
2. The teacher considered Peter the smartest.
3. They knew that the picture had been stolen.
Passive: 1. It is said that Mary was in Rome. Mary is said to be in Rome.
2. It was considered by the teacher that Peter was the smartest.
Peter was considered to be the most intelligent by the teacher.
3. It was known that the picture had been stolen.
The picture was known to have been stolen.
THE CAUSATIVE (have / get something done)
It is aREPORT
common structure in English which is linked to the passive voice because the main information offered is not
the person who carries out the action. It is used when one thing or person CAUSES another thing or person to do
something.
SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE VERB + OBJECT + ACTION VERB + “by” + AGENT (only when we know by whom)
I had/got my hair cut by the hairdresser.
I had/ got the car fixed
11
UNIT 4
MODAL VERBS
What are modal verbs?
 Modals are special verbs which behave irregularly in English.
 They are used to indicate modality and give additional information about the function of the main
verb that always follows it.
 They have a great variety of communicative functions such as:
1. Permission
4. Prohibition
6. Advice
2. Ability
5. Lack of
7. Possibility
3. Obligation
necessity
8. probability
Remember: Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to
Exceptions: ought to, have to, need to
A list of modals
Modal Verb
Meaning
must
internal oligation
to be very probable
must not
can
could
may
might
have to
need to
don’t have to
need not
should/ought
to
had better
Expressing
100 % internal obligation
Example
I must stop when the traffic
lights turn red.
He must be very tired after such
enormous work
You must not smoke in the
hospital.
I can swim
Can I use your phone please?
Smoking can cause cancer !
When I was younger I could stay
up all night and not get tired..
Excuse me, could I just say
something?
It could rain tomorrow!
May I use your phone please?
It may rain tomorrow!
not to be allowed to
logical conclusion
(deduction)
prohibition
to be able to
to be allowed to
it is possible
to be able to
ability
permission
possibility
ability in the past
to be allowed to
more polite permission
it is possible
to be allowed to
it is possible,
probable
it is possible,
probable
possibility
permission
possibility, probability
necessary
necessity
not necessary
lack of necessity/absence
of obligation
50 % obligation
I need not buy any tomatoes.
There are plenty in the fridge.
I should / ought to see a doctor. I
have a terrible headache.
Advice
You should / ought to revise
your lessons
used to say or ask
what is the correct or
best thing to do.
to suggest an action
or to show that it is
necessary
to be very probable
to suggest an action
or to show that it is
necessary
weak possibility,
probability
logical conclusion
(deduction)
advice
I might come and visit you in
America next year, if I can save
enough money.
Do I have to say more?
He should / ought to be very
tired after such enormous work
You 'd better revise your lessons
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MODAL PERFECT
All modal perfect auxiliary verbs refer to the past.
FORM: MODAL+ HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
1. must have done = we are almost sure something happened in the past
 Jane wasn't feeling well yesterday. She must have caught a cold.
 Bill didn't answer the phone when I called him. He must have fallen asleep.
2. can't have done = we are almost sure something did not happen in the past
 She can't have forgotten to send you an invitation. I gave her your address.
 They can't have gone to bed late. They were very tired.
3. may / might / could have done = it is possible that something happened in the past but we aren't
sure.
 Laura hasn't arrived yet. She may/might/could have missed the bus.
 I didn't see Paul at work. He may/might/could have been ill.
4. could have done = we had the ability to do something in the past but did not do it.
 You could have told us about the new project!
 She could have called me when she arrived but she forgot.
5. should have / ought to have done = (a) it was the right thing to do but we didn't do it. (b) we
expected something to happen but it didn't.
 You should have told him the truth.
 They ought to have received the cheque by now.
6. would have done = we wanted to do something but we didn't do it in the end.
 They would have emailed you but the Internet was down yesterday.
 I would have bought that DVD but I didn't have enough money.
7. needn't have done = it wasn't necessary to do something but we did it.
 You needn't have gone to the supermarket. I've already done the shopping.
 The weather was warm and sunny. I needn't have taken an umbrella.
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UNIT 5
REPORTED SPEECH
When we want to quote somebody's words, we can use the REPORTED SPEECH, in which we talk about
the idea that was expressed without quoting the exact words that were used.
REPORTED STATEMENTS

If the reporting verb is in the Simple Present, Present Perfect or Future, there is no change
of tense in the words reported.
Direct Speech
"I can explain the fact.”

Reported Speech
He says he can explain the fact.
However, when the reporting verb is in the Simple Past or Past Perfect a number of changes
typically occur.
CHANGE OF THE VERB TENSES
Direct Speech
SIMPLE PRESENT
“ I like oranges.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
“She is eating a cake.”
PRESENT PERFECT/SIMPLE PAST
“She has worked hard.”
“She went to London.”
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS /PAST
CONTINUOUS
“ I have been writing.”
“ I was joking.”
FUTURE – SHALL / WILL
“ We will be late.”
FUTURE CONTINUOUS
“ I will be using the car.”
CAN / MAY / MUST
“ I can swim.”
“ It may rain.”
“ I must go.”
Reported Speech
SIMPLE PAST
He said (that) he liked oranges.
PAST CONTINUOUS
He said she was eating a cake.
PAST PERFECT
. He said she had worked hard.
He said she had gone to London
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
He said he had been writing.
He said he had been joking.
CONDITIONAL – SHOULD / WOULD
He said he would be late.
CONDITIONAL CONTINUOUS
He said he would be using the car.
COULD / MIGHT / HAD TO
She said she could swim.
He said it might rain.
She said she had to go.
CHANGE OF
PRONOUNS /
DETERMINERS
CHANGE OF TIME EXPRESSION
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Today
Yesterday
The day before
yesterday
Tomorrow
That day/the same day
The day before/the previous day
Two days before
Ago
Now
Last week/year…
Next week/month…
The following day/the next day/the day
after
Before
Then/at that time
The previous week / The week/year
before
The following week/month
Direct
Speech
Reported
Speech
I / You
He / She
We
My / your
They
His / Her /
Our
Their
That / Those
Our
This /
These
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REPORTED QUESTIONS





The same changes of reported statements;
The interrogative form changes to the affirmative;
The auxiliary verb to do is not used (do,does,did);
The question mark is eliminated ( ? );
The introductory verbs are asked, wondered, enquired and wanted to know…
Direct Speech
“ Where does he live?”
“ Where is the station?”
“ Why is my mother driving so fast?”

Reported Speech
She wanted to know where he lived.
He enquired where the station was.
He asked why his mother was driving so fast.
If there is no question word, IF or WHETHER is placed after the introductory verb.
Direct Speech
“ Is anyone her?”, he asked.
“ Can I help you?”, she asked.
“ Did you buy this book?”
Reported Speech
He asked if anyone was there.
She asked whether she could help me.
She enquired if I had bought that book.
REPORTED COMMANDS AND REQUESTS



The introductory verb expresses command or request: tell, order, command, ask…
The introductory verb must be followed by the person addressed and the infinitive.
The auxiliary verb to do is not used.
Direct Speech
“ Be quiet!”, the teacher told the
students.
“ Get your coat, Tom.”, he ordered.
“ Close the door, please!”
“ Don’t do it!”, his mother said.
“ Don’t eat that chocolate”, she said.
Reported Speech
The teacher told the students to be quiet.
He ordered Tom to get his coat.
His mother asked him to close the door.
His mother ordered him not to do it.
She told him not to eat that chocolate.
SUGGESTIONS
We can use the following reporting verbs: suggest, recommend, advise or invite, depending on the
speaker’s intentions. The structures used are:
 A clause formed by that + subject + verb in the base form:
“Let’s watch the new film” Mathew suggested
Mathew suggested that we watch the new film.
 A gerund with no specified subject:
“Buy the food in the new shop around the corner” Molly recommended
Molly recommended buying the food in the new shop around the corner.
REPORTING VERBS
Statements: admit, announce, answer, apologize, boast, claim, complain, declare, explain, inform, insist,
mention, offer, remind, reply, state.
Questions: enquire, request, want to know, wonder.
Orders: demand, order, shout, warn.
Request: beg, ask
Suggestions: admire, invite, suggest, recommend
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UNIT 6
RELATIVE CLAUSES
We use relative clauses to give additional information about something without starting another
sentence. By combining sentences with a relative clause, your text becomes more fluent and you can
avoid repeating certain words.
How to Form Relative Clauses
Imagine, a girl is talking to Tom. You want to know who she is and ask a friend whether he knows her.
You could say:
A girl is talking to Tom. Do you know the girl?
That sounds rather complicated, doesn't it? It would be easier with a relative clause: you put both pieces
of information into one sentence. Start with the most important thing – you want to know who the girl
is.
Do you know the girl …
As your friend cannot know which girl you are talking about, you need to put in the additional
information – the girl is talking to Tom. Use „the girl“ only in the first part of the sentence, in the second
part replace it with the relative pronoun (for people, use the relative pronoun „who“). So the final
sentence is:
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
relative
pronoun
use
example
who
subject or object pronoun for people
I
told
you
about
woman who lives next door.
which
subject or object pronoun for animals and things
Do you see the cat which is lying
on the roof?
which
referring to a whole sentence
He couldn’t read which surprised
me.
whose
possession for people animals and things
Do
you
know
the
boy whose mother is a nurse?
whom
object pronoun for people, especially in non-defining I
was
invited
by
relative clauses (in defining relative clauses we professor whom I met at
colloquially prefer who)
conference.
that
subject or object pronoun for people, animals and I don’t like the table that stands in
things in defining relative clauses (who or which are the kitchen.
also possible)
the
the
the
Subject Pronoun or Object Pronoun?
Subject and object pronouns cannot be distinguished by their forms, who, which, that are used for
subject and object pronouns. You can, however, distinguish them as follows:
If the relative pronoun is followed by a verb, the relative pronoun is a subject pronoun. Subject pronouns
must always be used.
The apple which is lying on the table
If the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun, the relative pronoun is an object pronoun.
Object pronouns can be dropped in defining relative clauses, which are then called Contact Clauses.
The apple (which) George lay on the table
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RELATIVE ADVERBS
A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This often makes the
sentence easier to understand.
This is the shop in which I bought my bike. → This is the shop where I bought my bike.
relative
adverb
meaning
use
example
when
in/on which
refers to a time expression
the day when we met him
where
in/at which
refers to a place
the place where we met him
why
for which
refers to a reason
the reason why we met him
Defining Relative Clauses
Defining relative clauses give detailed information defining a general term or expression. Defining
relative clauses are not put in commas.
Do you know the girl who is talking to Tom?
The relative clause is necessary to identify the girl, other way it is not possible to know which girl we are
referring to.
Defining relative clauses are also used in definitions.
A seaman is someone who works on a ship.
Object pronouns in defining relative clauses can be dropped.
The boy (who/whom) we met yesterday is very nice.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses give additional information on something, but do not define it. Nondefining relative clauses are put in commas.
Do you know Sarah, who won the first price in the competition?
In non-defining relative clauses, who/which may not be replaced with that.
Object pronouns in non-defining relative clauses must be used.
Jim, who/whom we met yesterday, is very nice.
How to Shorten Relative Clauses?
Relative clauses with who, which, that as subject pronoun can be replaced with a –ing form. This makes
the sentence shorter and easier to understand.
I told you about the woman who lives next door. – I told you about the woman living next door.
Do you see the cat which is lying on the roof? – Do you see the cat lying on the roof?
Formal / Informal Relative Clauses
When the relative pronoun is accompanied by a preposition, we can still use which if the antecedent is
refers to a thing; but if it refers to a person, we can use whom instead of who. This use is very formal, so
the preposition usually comes at the end of the sentence and the pronoun can be omitted.
This is the house in which I lived. → This is the house (which) I lived in.
The student to whom I talked was very mature. → The student (who) I talked to was very mature.
BOTH…AND / EITHER…OR / NEITHER …NOR
We use both…and in order to express to possibilities.
Both your mother and I agree on this matter.
We use either… or to talk about two alternatives when no other alternative is possible.
Either I get a rise or I resign.
We use neither…nor in order to associate two elements and show that both of them are excluded or
impossible.
I am neither prepared nor willing.
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