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Lecture Presentation Environmental Science Toward a Sustainable Future Twelfth Edition CHAPTER 6 Wild Species and Biodiversity Lectures by: Heidi Marcum Baylor University © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild organisms are declining worldwide • Rare Ganges River dolphins and Indus River dolphins live in rivers around the Bay of Bengal – These nearly blind dolphins find fish by echolocation • Many rivers are polluted, dammed, and crowded with fishermen – The Baiji river dolphin in China was declared extinct in 2006 • Protected areas have been set aside for dolphins – Intense effort is needed to save them from extinction • Scientists are trying to save individual species and biodiversity (Earth’s variety of life) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild species and biodiversity have value • Ecosystem capital: all goods and services provided to humans by natural systems – Capital loss from the 2008 financial crisis = $1–1.5 trillion – Capital loss from ecosystem degradation = $2–4.5 trillion • The basis of natural capital = ecosystems – The basis of ecosystems = wild species • Keeping ecosystem sustainability means saving – Its integrity, resilience, processes, biodiversity © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Values determine our attitudes to wildlife • People may agree that wildlife should be protected – But they don’t agree on the type of protection • Some want wildlife protected for hunting – Others feel hunting should be banned • Many think loss of biodiversity is a tragedy • People in developing countries use wildlife for food or money • How can different values be reconciled to sustainably mange wildlife? © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biological wealth • Two million species have been examined, named, and classified – But 5–30 million species may exist • Biota: species of living things that are responsible for ecosystem structure and maintenance • Biological wealth: biota plus their ecosystems – The ecosystem capital that sustains human life and economic activity – Represents a major part of a country’s total wealth – This richness of living species constitutes biodiversity – Biodiversity Crash Course © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. New species are being discovered The “inflatable shark” swells by filling its body with water © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Humans have always used wild species • 12,000 years ago, humans started converting forests, savannas, and plains to fields and pastures • As human populations grew and culture developed – Species were exploited to extinction – Others disappeared as their habitats were destroyed • Between 1642 and 2001, 631 North American species and subspecies went extinct • We have been drawing down our biological wealth with unknown consequences – Global biodiversity loss costs $4.5 trillion/year! © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. We still depend on biological wealth • Many Americans don’t see the connection between everyday life and nature • In developing countries – People draw sustenance and income from nature – Environmental income sustains them and gives them wealth – But people also draw down their biological wealth • The way we regard and value nature is a root cause of this problem © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild species have value • In the 19th century, hunters slaughtered wildlife – Bison, passenger pigeons, egrets, and other shorebirds • Appalled naturalists called for ending the slaughter – People saw species as worth preserving • We shouldn’t hunt species to extinction – Wild species have value that makes it essential to preserve them – Identifying this value lets us assess our moral duties to species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The two kinds of values of wildlife • Instrumental value or Utilitarian value: a species’ or organism’s existence or use benefits some other entity – Food, shelter, source of income – Usually anthropocentric: beneficiaries are humans – We preserve species to enjoy their benefits • Intrinsic value: something has value for its own sake – It does not have to be useful to us – Do animals have rights? Or are they simply property? • Many believe only humans have intrinsic value – There is no reason to preserve “insignificant” species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Species have intrinsic value Support is growing to preserve all species, such as this Blandings turtle © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Valuing species: sources for materials • Most food comes from agriculture, but wild species have vigor: – They have traits for competitiveness, resistance to parasites, tolerance to adverse conditions – Agricultural populations have lost these traits • A cultivar (cultivated variety): a highly selected strain of an original species – Has minimal genetic variation – Produces outstanding yields in specific conditions – Cannot adapt to other conditions © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild genes maintain vigor • Plant breeders comb wild populations of related species for desired traits – To maintain vigor in cultivars – To adapt them to different conditions • Traits from the natural biota are introduced into cultivars by crossbreeding or biotechnology • Genes can come only from natural biota – If wild populations are lost, options for improved food plants are greatly reduced © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild species create new food plants • Potential for developing new cultivars is lost if wild populations are destroyed • Out of the hundreds of thousands of plants species – Modern agriculture uses only 30 species – Three species (wheat, maize, rice) provide 50% of global food demands • Modern plants can not produce under many environmental conditions – 30,000 plant species could be cultivated in less-than-suitable environments © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild species provide raw materials • Animal husbandry, forestry, and aquaculture also use species from nature • Three billion people use wood for heating and cooking and the demand in increasing – Scientists are predicting a “timber famine” or “fuelwood crisis” • Rubber, oils, nuts, fruits, spices, and gums also come from forests – All are valuable for humans © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Nonwood forest products These nonwood forest products can increase income in African forested areas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Species can be living banks for genes • Genetic bank: living things house the gene pools of all living species • Wild relatives of cultivated crops must be preserved – England’s Millennium Seed Bank has 1 billion seeds • Zoos act as genetic banks for animals – They actively conserve and breed animals – The United Kingdom’s Frozen Ark Project collects cells and DNA from species likely to go extinct • We must preserve genetic diversity while we try to slow extinction © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild species are sources for medicine • The Chinese star anise’s fruit is used in Tamiflu • Paclitaxel (Taxol) from the Pacific and English yew trees treats ovarian, breast, and small-cell cancers • Ethnobotany: studies relationships between plants and people – 3,000 plants have anticancer properties • The search for beneficial drugs has helped create parks • Bioprospecting: studies indigenous people’s use of plants © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The rosy periwinkle Madagascar’s rosy periwinkle is used to treat childhood leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Species have recreational, aesthetic, and scientific value • Species provide sportfishing, hiking, camping, birdwatching, etc. interests • In 2006, 87.5 million Americans were involved in some form of outdoor recreation – Provided jobs for 2.6 million people – Generated $108 billion • Broad public support for wildlife and habitat stems from aesthetic and recreational enjoyment © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Recreational, aesthetic, and scientific values of species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Species have commercial and scientific value • Ecotourism: tourists visit a place to observe wild species or unique ecological sites – It is the largest foreign exchange-generating enterprise for many developing countries • Environmental degradation affects commercial interests • We learn basic laws of nature from living things – The way ecosystems and the world work – To gain medicines, agricultural benefits, and other outcomes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. A cautionary note about justice • Using wild species and biodiversity causes problems – Little money from the rosy periwinkle’s success went back to Madagascar, a very poor country • Large companies have patented ancient herbal remedies – But indigenous people may not benefit • Ecotourism may bring money to poor countries – It increases pollution, harms wildlife, changes cultures – Whale-watching boats disrupt whale feeding – Tourist boats frighten flamingoes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The loss of instrumental value • Biodiversity loss has tremendous negative effect on the world • The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity’s (TEEB) 2008 report – Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services = $78 billion/yr – Costs are highest for the world’s poorest – Such an outcome is morally wrong • Even instrumental values of resources have an ethical component © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Species have value for their own sake • Instrumental value (usefulness) of a species is obvious – But some species have no obvious, useful, value • Another strategy: emphasize the intrinsic value of species – Extinction is an irretrievable loss of something valuable • The existence of a species means it has a right to exist – Living things have ends and interests of their own • “Destroying species is like tearing pages out of an unread book” – Humans have a responsibility to the natural world © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Religious support for intrinsic value • Jewish and Christian traditions show God’s concern for wild species – God declared his creation was good and blessed it – All wild things have intrinsic value and deserve care • The Islamic Quran (Koran) says the environment is Allah’s creation and should be protected • Native American religions and Hindus have strong environmental ethics • Religions can be a powerful force for preserving biodiversity and protecting them from human harm © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Aldo Leopold’s land ethic • Leopold’s 1949 essay “The Land Ethic” described an ethic about preservation of ecosystems • Leopold understood the importance of fire and predators in maintaining ecosystem health – He advocated for protection of wilderness (wild places) and human-dominated land • Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac stated: – “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.” © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity is declining • Biodiversity includes genetic diversity in species – And the diversity of species, communities, and ecosystems • Two measures calculate biodiversity – The number of species – How “even” the species are • A habitat with low biodiversity is dominated by one species with few members of other species • Diversity is higher if dominance of any one species is low © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. How many species are there? • Almost 2 million species have been described – But most people don’t know about the great diversity of species • Groups rich in species: flowering plants and insects • Conspicuous or commercially important groups are more explored and described – Birds, mammals, fish, trees • Fully exploring biodiversity would require a major effort – Species estimates rise as rain forests are explored © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The decline of biodiversity • Biodiversity is declining in the U.S. and the world • Endemic species: are found only in one habitat – They are especially at risk • Some areas are very vulnerable to species loss – These are the focus of special conservation efforts • The biota of North America, although well-studied, is still not well-known – Over 500 species (100 vertebrates) are now extinct – One-third of almost 21,000 species are vulnerable, imperiled, or extinct © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. North America’s species are declining • Species in freshwater habitats are at greatest risk – Mussels, crayfish, fishes, amphibians – The American Southeast has the greatest diversity of any freshwater bivalve (mussels, clams) group • Species populations are more important than a species’ existence – Populations contribute to biological wealth • Well-studied species populations are declining – Fish and amphibians – Over 25% of North American birds are declining © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The alarming global loss of biodiversity • The background (past) extinction rate is less than one extinction every thousand years for mammals – Except for the five great extinction events • Current extinction rate = 100–1,000 times greater than past rates – For mammals and birds = 20–25 species per 100 years – Rates for all groups = 850 species over 500 years – 23% of mammal species and 12% of bird species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Who is going extinct? A comprehensive survey of more than 47,000 species categorized by level of risk of extinction © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The tropics houses most threatened species • The tropics have almost unimaginable biodiversity • 43 species of ants occur on one tree in Peru – Equal to all ant fauna of the British Isles • 300 species of trees on a 2.5-acre plot – 1,000 species of beetles on one tree species in Panama • Tropical forests are also experiencing the highest rate of deforestation – The species inventory is so incomplete it’s almost impossible to assess extinction rates © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Why are species declining? • Past extinctions were caused by climate change, plate tectonics, and asteroid impacts • Current threats to biodiversity are described by HIPPO – Habitat destruction – Invasive species – Pollution – Population – Overexploitation • Species experience combinations of these factors © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss will be greatest in the developing world • In the developing world, biodiversity is greatest – So is human population growth • Asia and Africa have lost 67% of their original natural habitat – People’s desire for a better life – Desperate poverty – Global market for timber and other resources • We must reduce human population growth and resource consumption © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: habitat conversion • Habitat loss has caused 36% of all extinctions – Conversion, fragmentation, simplification, intrusion • Species are adapted to specific habitats – When the habitat changes, the species goes with it • Conversion of natural areas to farms, housing, malls, marinas, industrial centers – Forest cover has been reduced by 40% – North American songbird losses are due to lost winter habitat and fragmentation of summer habitat – Croplands support fewer species than grasslands © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The border of Haiti and the Dominican Republic Insert Fig. 6-7 Haiti’s tremendous loss of forests has caused species loss, erosion, and water quality problems © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: habitat fragmentation • Natural landscapes have large patches of habitat connected to other similar patches • Human-dominated landscapes consist of a mosaic of different land uses – The patches contrast with neighboring patches • Fragments of habitat support small numbers and populations of species – Species become vulnerable to extinction • Species that require large areas, grow slowly, or have unstable populations are most vulnerable © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Habitat fragmentation breaks up natural areas © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Fragmentation increases edge areas • Edge habitats expose species to predators and nest parasites – The endangered Kirtland’s warbler in Michigan depends on jack pine trees – Brown-headed cowbirds lay their eggs in the warbler’s nest • Roadways kill a million animals each day – More animals are killed than by hunters – Overpasses and tunnels provide safe corridors – Amphibians are particularly affected © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: simplification and intrusion • Simplification of habitats by removing trees and channelizing (straightening) streams – Changes forest microhabitats – Reducing fish and invertebrate species in streams • Intrusion of human structures in habitats – Millions of birds crash into telecommunication towers – Cell phone tower lights affect birds migrating at night – Up to a billion birds die each year by crashing into windows – The FCC must come up with a plan to protect birds © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: invasive species • An exotic (alien) species: is introduced into an area from somewhere else – Most can’t survive, or their populations stay low • Invasive species: thrive, spread, and may eliminate native species – By predation or competition • Accidental introductions of species: – Fleas on rats brought the bubonic plague to Europe, threaten bird species, and eat crops – Red imported fire ants kill 20% of songbird babies © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The red imported fire ant The fire ant damages crops and domestic animals, and contributes to the decline of wild species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. May I introduce… • Species have been deliberately introduced – Kudzu and salt cedar were planted to control erosion • Horticultural desirables: attractive plants – It cost $110 million to remove Japanese knotweed from London before the 2012 Olympics • Aquaculture: the farming of shellfish, seaweed, and fish – Introduces parasites, seaweeds, invertebrates, pathogens – Species escape and enter nearby waterways © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Japanese knotweed—an invasive plant Japanese knotweed can break foundations, outcompete other plants, and grow without seeds from underground stems © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. We have always introduced species • European colonists brought weeds and plants to America – Many field, lawn, and roadside plants are exotics • Animals have been introduced to North America – House mouse, Norway rat, wild boar, starling, horse – Exotics cost the U.S. $137 billion each year • North American animals are exported to other areas – Gray squirrels outcompete red squirrels in Europe • Exotic plants may be harder for animals to eat – Keeping energy and materials out of the food chain © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The house cat—a destructive exotic Free-roaming house cats kill over a billion mammals and birds each year © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: pollution • Pollution directly kills plants and animals – Fertilizer runoff into the Mississippi River has created an enormous “dead zone” in the Gulf of Mexico • Pollution destroys or alters habitats – Oil spills kill seabirds and sea mammals – Pesticides travel up the food chain – Sediments kill species in lakes, rivers, and bays – Climate change is already impacting species • Pathogen pollution: human wastes can spread pathogenic microorganisms to wild species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Intersex fish have male and female organs Pollution from run-off, industry, and sewage can cause fish to have both male and female organs © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: human population • Human populations put pressure on species – Direct use, habitat conversion, pollution – People use resources species need • Even if each person uses small amounts of resources, resources can still be overused – People with highly consumptive lifestyles have a disproportionate effect on the environment • Different levels of consumption and numbers of people drive tensions between countries © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity loss: overexploitation • Overexploitation: overharvest of a species – Removing individuals faster than they can reproduce – Driven by greed, ignorance, desperation, poor management – Overcutting forests, overgrazing, overhunting, etc. • Trade in exotics: trafficking in wildlife – Illegal trade generates $12 billion/yr, the third largest illicit income source after drugs and guns – Consumers willingly pay huge prices for “luxuries” (e.g., polar bear rugs, exotic pets, teak furniture) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Black rhinos are poached for their horns Black rhino horn is prized in traditional Asian medicine and as ornamentation © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Greed drives overexploitation • The prospect of extinction does not stop exploiters – Huge profits drive poaching and the black market trade • Exotic pets (fish, reptiles, birds) are taken from the wild, but most do not survive – Breeding populations are decreased • The U.S. 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act – Stops wild capture of declining birds, upholds treaties, and supports sustainable breeding programs • The European Union forbids importing wild birds © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Consequences of losing biodiversity • A species’ intrinsic value is self-explanatory • We need biodiversity for survival – For ecosystem goods and services, medicines, aesthetics, recreation, and ecotourism • Keystone species: play a vital role to survival of other species – Predators control herbivores – Umbrella species: larger animals that need unspoiled habitat (wolves, elephants, tigers, moose, etc.) • Most declining species are K-selected species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Moving forward • What if humans cause a species to go extinct? – The natural world is less beautiful or interesting • There are glimmers of hope – Species thought to be extinct aren’t – New populations of rare species are discovered • New protections emerge from a change in policy – The EU’s concern over avian flu limits bird imports • Scientific accomplishments and captive breeding – A rhinoceros baby was born from frozen semen © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Captive breeding of a rare species Captive breeders can use frozen semen to produce black-footed ferrets, an extremely rare animal © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Saving wild species: conservation biology • Scientists are leaders in protecting biodiversity – They know what is out there and what is declining • But laws and enforcement are also needed – People need to look at the big picture • Conservation biology: focuses on protection of populations and species – Uses captive breeding, monitoring, and research • Taxonomy: the cataloging and naming of species – Understanding species and identifying those in trouble – A lack of experts makes it hard to find solutions © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Individuals and corporations can help • Individuals can help protect biodiversity – Personal choices (purchases, driving, chemical use) – Support non-profits and push for policy actions – Push corporations to work in more sustainable ways – “Citizen scientists” help gather data on species • Businesses are realizing that biodiversity loss can harm their profits – Biodiversity-friendly investing is increasing © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Nonprofit organizations can help • People can contribute to nonprofit organizations – World Wildlife Fund, Audubon Society • People can “sponsor” species – These are “charismatic” (widely appealing) species • Land conservation protects multiple species • Zoos educate people about conserving biodiversity – Captive breeding may be the only thing keeping a species from extinction – This is not sustainable but may buy us some time • Botanical gardens help save plant species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Citizen Science: The Great Sunflower Project Citizen scientists gather data on species, which can help answer why species such as pollinators are declining © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Governments make public policies • Public policies and agencies to make and support them are necessary to protect species • In the U.S., wildlife resources are public resources – The government holds these resources under the Public Trust Doctrine and is obliged to protect them – State fisheries and wildlife agencies do the protecting • The law may require federal jurisdiction – Endangered species and game animals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Game animals in the United States • Game animals are hunted for sport, meat, pelts • Early on, species were hunted to extinction (great auk, heath hen, passenger pigeon) – Or near extinction (bison, turkey) • Regulations established hunting seasons and limits – Some species were given complete protection • Wild turkeys were hunted almost to extinction – Protection of birds and habitats increased numbers – They are not an introduced pest in the western U.S. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Hunting and conservation • Hunting and trapping fees help save habitats – Organizations raise funds for species to hunt • Defenders of hunting argue that their prey lack predators – Increased prey eat crops, collide with cars, etc. • Hunters may think species are declining – But managers may think numbers are too high • Others want to end hunting and trapping – Some practices (leghold steel traps) are cruel • Predators can restore natural checks and balances © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Wild cougar are running out of room This cougar was on a suburban roof—it is getting harder to find wild areas to return big predators to ( 60 minutes) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Too many animals • Government agencies manage wild animals • Many nuisance animals thrive in urban areas – Garbage attracts opossums, skunks, and deer – These animals create health hazards (i.e., rabies) • The USDA’s Wildlife Services kills 2.5 million animals per year – By poisoning, trapping, and other devices – Native (i.e., raccoons) and exotic (i.e., starlings) species are killed – This limits negative human–wildlife interactions © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Protecting endangered species • Government policies protecting animals are essential to prevent extinction – Even when cultural standards change – Laws and policies ensure protection • Lacey Act (1900): forbids interstate commerce in illegally killed wildlife – Protects wildlife from illegal killing or smuggling – The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service can bring federal charges against those violating wildlife laws – Violators pay fines or serve jail time © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The Endangered Species Act (1973) • The ESA protects endangered species: in imminent danger of becoming extinct if it is not protected – Includes genetically distinct populations (subspecies) • It also protects threatened species: those in jeopardy but not yet endangered • Fines are levied for killing, trapping, uprooting (plants), or engaging in commerce of these species • Administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service – And the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries Service © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Examples of endangered species Without protection, these species will go extinct © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. How is a species listed for protection? • Listing: by the appropriate agency, individuals, groups, or state agencies – Based on the best available information – Does not include any economic impact of listing • Critical habitat: designated as areas where a species is or could spread as it recovers – Includes privately held lands • Recovery plans: designed to allow listed species to survive and thrive – Developed by the appropriate agency © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Alternatives and roadblocks to the ESA • By 2011, 1,990 species were listed for protection – 251 other candidate species are waiting to be listed • Political battles have prevented its reauthorization • Development, timber, recreational, mining, and other groups oppose it – They believe it limits their property rights • Threatened and Endangered Species Recovery Act would have severely limited species protection – Scientists strongly objected to it – It passed the House but not the Senate © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Conflicting values about the ESA • Critics say the Endangered Species Act is a failure – Only 23 species have recovered and been delisted • But the ESA is succeeding despite handicaps – The two major causes of extinction (habitat loss and invasive species) are increasing – Species numbers are critically low before listing – 41% of species have stabilized or increased—a success • Some critics say the act does not go far enough – Protection only occurs with listing and a recovery plan – Candidate species go extinct before being listed © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The ESA designates critical habitat • Opponents feel that designating critical habitat places unwanted burdens on property owners – They feel it does not help conserve species – TESRA would have identified, but not required, areas of “special value” for species • But designating critical habitat works – Species with critical habitat have been twice as likely to recover • Current efforts are taking an ecosystem approach – Protecting critical habitats of multiple species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Improving the ESA • In 2006, 6,000 scientists signed a letter to the Senate urging them to keep and strengthen the ESA • The ESA formally recognizes the importance of preserving species – Regardless of their economic importance – Listed species have legal rights to protection – It shows an encouraging attitude towards nature • Tax breaks and incentives to landowners may help – The Endangered Species Recovery Act (ESRA) (2007) © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Seeing success in protecting species • Some species have successfully recovered – The gray wolf • Birds of prey have recovered and been delisted – Both the bald eagle and peregrine falcon had thinner eggs due to the pesticide DDT – Once DDT was banned in the U.S. and Canada, numbers increased – The Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act still protects them © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The American bald eagle The Endangered Species Act worked in increasing eagle numbers so it could be delisted © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Fly away home • The last remaining whooping crane flock had full-time monitoring and protection – From 14 cranes in 1939, 279 cranes now exist – The migratory flock flies between Texas and Canada – Nonmigratory flocks live in Florida and Louisiana • 105 birds make up a new Florida–Wisconsin migratory flock – They were “taught” their migratory path by following an ultralight aircraft • There is hope these vulnerable flocks will succeed © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Whooping cranes and pilot The pilot is leading this flock of whooping cranes in their migration from Wisconsin to Florida © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Protecting biodiversity internationally • Efforts are being made globally to protect species – Especially in the tropics • Requires immense cooperation among local, state, and federal authorities – The National Biological Information Infrastructure helps the U.S. coordinate with the rest of the world • Partnerships between nations: – Create treaties, monitor species, share information – Find solutions when the needs of people clash with species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. International developments • International Union for Conservation of Nature – The IUCN monitors successes and failures of conservation efforts • Other groups coordinate scientists or policy makers • The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) – Advisors that keep a global database on exotics • Policy and treaty makers formulate documents – Convention on Biological Diversity • Funding must be available for protection – The Critical Ecosystems Partnership fund, etc. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The IUCN’s Red List • Evaluates the risk of extinction for thousands of threatened species • Frequently updated and available on the Internet – In 2011, it had 18,678 species • It classified and describes each species’ – Distribution, documentation, habitat, ecology, conservation measures, and data sources • Not actively engaged in preserving species, but it – Provides the basis of conservation activities – Provides crucial leadership © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. CITES • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora – Established in the early 1970s – 169 nations signed this international agreement focusing on trade and wildlife • The highest level of vulnerability: species threatened with extinction – Uses restrictive trade permits and may even ban trade – The signatory countries meet every 2–3 years © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. CITES banned the trade in ivory • Implemented in 1989 to stop the rapid decline of the African elephant – Fell from 2.5 million in 1950 to 470,000 in 2008 • Some countries have applied to CITES to resume ivory sales – Each time a sale is permitted, poaching resumes • Any plan to protect elephants must enable people to manage wildlife without overexploitation – Requires a world outcry against ivory collection © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Convention on Biological Diversity • CITES does not address biodiversity loss • 192 states and the EU signed the Biodiversity Treaty to conserve global biodiversity – Drafted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro • Its three objectives are: – Conservation of biodiversity – Sustainable use of biodiversity services – Equitable sharing of a nation’s genetic resources • Governed by the Conference of the Parties – The last conference was in 2010, in Aichi, Japan © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 2011–2020: The Decade of Biodiversity • The Aichi Biodiversity targets are: – Dramatically decrease the loss of natural habitats – Establish conservation targets for aquatic habitats – Restore degraded areas – Try hard to reduce pressures on coral reefs • It will take a massive and costly effort to reach these goals • Lobbying by organizations prevented ratification by the Senate – But the U.S. still sends delegations to meetings © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund • Sponsored by multiple entities and foundations – Provides grants to NGOs and community-based groups – For conservation activities in biodiversity “hot spots” • Hot spots are 34 regions making up 2.3% of Earth’s land surface – Contain 75% of the most threatened species • By 2011, the fund had provided $137 million – 1,627 partners are working on preserving biodiversity in these hot spots © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Biodiversity hot spots These “emergency rooms” of biodiversity are funded by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Stewardship concerns • We must take steps to protect biological wealth – Our values come from our view of species • The UN Global Biodiversity Assessments’ themes: – Reform policies that lead to biodiversity declines – Address the needs of people living next to highbiodiversity areas and involve them – Practice conservation at the landscape level – Promote more research on biodiversity, particularly through the Internet © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Our values show how we view species • Is the natural world simply for humans to use? – Or should it be managed sustainably? • We have to convince others to conserve species • Stemming the loss of species requires hard work – We must focus on preserving ecosystems • Thomas Jefferson said that if one link in nature’s chain is lost, another might be lost – Until the whole of things vanishes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.