Download Wild species have value

Lecture Presentation
Environmental Science
Toward a Sustainable Future
Twelfth Edition
CHAPTER 6
Wild Species and
Biodiversity
Lectures by:
Heidi Marcum
Baylor University
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Wild organisms are declining worldwide
• Rare Ganges River dolphins and Indus River
dolphins live in rivers around the Bay of Bengal
– These nearly blind dolphins find fish by
echolocation
• Many rivers are polluted, dammed, and crowded with
fishermen
– The Baiji river dolphin in China was declared
extinct in 2006
• Protected areas have been set aside for dolphins
– Intense effort is needed to save them from
extinction
• Scientists are trying to save individual species and
biodiversity (Earth’s variety of life)
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Wild species and biodiversity have value
• Ecosystem capital: all goods and services provided to
humans by natural systems
– Capital loss from the 2008 financial crisis
= $1–1.5 trillion
– Capital loss from ecosystem degradation
= $2–4.5 trillion
• The basis of natural capital = ecosystems
– The basis of ecosystems = wild species
• Keeping ecosystem sustainability means saving
– Its integrity, resilience, processes, biodiversity
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Values determine our attitudes to wildlife
• People may agree that wildlife should be protected
– But they don’t agree on the type of protection
• Some want wildlife protected for hunting
– Others feel hunting should be banned
• Many think loss of biodiversity is a tragedy
• People in developing countries use wildlife for food or
money
• How can different values be reconciled to sustainably
mange wildlife?
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Biological wealth
• Two million species have been examined, named, and
classified
– But 5–30 million species may exist
• Biota: species of living things that are responsible for
ecosystem structure and maintenance
• Biological wealth: biota plus their ecosystems
– The ecosystem capital that sustains human life and
economic activity
– Represents a major part of a country’s total wealth
– This richness of living species constitutes
biodiversity
– Biodiversity Crash Course
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New species are being discovered
The “inflatable shark” swells by filling its body with water
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Humans have always used wild species
• 12,000 years ago, humans started converting forests,
savannas, and plains to fields and pastures
• As human populations grew and culture developed
– Species were exploited to extinction
– Others disappeared as their habitats were
destroyed
• Between 1642 and 2001, 631 North American species
and subspecies went extinct
• We have been drawing down our biological wealth
with unknown consequences
– Global biodiversity loss costs $4.5 trillion/year!
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We still depend on biological wealth
• Many Americans don’t see the connection between
everyday life and nature
• In developing countries
– People draw sustenance and income from nature
– Environmental income sustains them and gives
them wealth
– But people also draw down their biological wealth
• The way we regard and value nature is a root cause of
this problem
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Wild species have value
• In the 19th century, hunters slaughtered wildlife
– Bison, passenger pigeons, egrets, and other
shorebirds
• Appalled naturalists called for ending the slaughter
– People saw species as worth preserving
• We shouldn’t hunt species to extinction
– Wild species have value that makes it essential to
preserve them
– Identifying this value lets us assess our moral
duties to species
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The two kinds of values of wildlife
• Instrumental value or Utilitarian value: a species’
or organism’s existence or use benefits some other
entity
– Food, shelter, source of income
– Usually anthropocentric: beneficiaries are humans
– We preserve species to enjoy their benefits
• Intrinsic value: something has value for its own sake
– It does not have to be useful to us
– Do animals have rights? Or are they simply
property?
• Many believe only humans have intrinsic value
– There is no reason to preserve “insignificant”
species
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Species have intrinsic value
Support is growing to preserve all species, such as this
Blandings turtle
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Valuing species: sources for materials
• Most food comes from agriculture, but wild species
have vigor:
– They have traits for competitiveness, resistance to
parasites, tolerance to adverse conditions
– Agricultural populations have lost these traits
• A cultivar (cultivated variety): a highly selected strain
of an original species
– Has minimal genetic variation
– Produces outstanding yields in specific conditions
– Cannot adapt to other conditions
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Wild genes maintain vigor
• Plant breeders comb wild populations of related
species for desired traits
– To maintain vigor in cultivars
– To adapt them to different conditions
• Traits from the natural biota are introduced into
cultivars by crossbreeding or biotechnology
• Genes can come only from natural biota
– If wild populations are lost, options for improved
food plants are greatly reduced
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Wild species create new food plants
• Potential for developing new cultivars is lost if wild
populations are destroyed
• Out of the hundreds of thousands of plants species
– Modern agriculture uses only 30 species
– Three species (wheat, maize, rice) provide 50%
of global food demands
• Modern plants can not produce under many
environmental conditions
– 30,000 plant species could be cultivated in
less-than-suitable environments
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Wild species provide raw materials
• Animal husbandry, forestry, and aquaculture also use
species from nature
• Three billion people use wood for heating and
cooking and the demand in increasing
– Scientists are predicting a “timber famine” or
“fuelwood crisis”
• Rubber, oils, nuts, fruits, spices, and gums also come
from forests
– All are valuable for humans
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Nonwood forest products
These nonwood forest products can increase income in
African forested areas
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Species can be living banks for genes
• Genetic bank: living things house the gene pools of
all living species
• Wild relatives of cultivated crops must be preserved
– England’s Millennium Seed Bank has 1 billion
seeds
• Zoos act as genetic banks for animals
– They actively conserve and breed animals
– The United Kingdom’s Frozen Ark Project collects
cells and DNA from species likely to go extinct
• We must preserve genetic diversity while we try to
slow extinction
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Wild species are sources for medicine
• The Chinese star anise’s fruit is used in Tamiflu
• Paclitaxel (Taxol) from the Pacific and English yew
trees treats ovarian, breast, and small-cell cancers
• Ethnobotany: studies relationships between plants
and people
– 3,000 plants have anticancer properties
• The search for beneficial drugs has helped create
parks
• Bioprospecting: studies indigenous people’s use of
plants
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The rosy periwinkle
Madagascar’s rosy periwinkle is used to treat childhood
leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease
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Species have recreational, aesthetic, and
scientific value
• Species provide sportfishing, hiking, camping, birdwatching, etc. interests
• In 2006, 87.5 million Americans were involved in some
form of outdoor recreation
– Provided jobs for 2.6 million people
– Generated $108 billion
• Broad public support for wildlife and habitat stems from
aesthetic and recreational enjoyment
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Recreational, aesthetic, and scientific
values of species
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Species have commercial and scientific
value
• Ecotourism: tourists visit a place to observe wild
species or unique ecological sites
– It is the largest foreign exchange-generating
enterprise for many developing countries
• Environmental degradation affects commercial
interests
• We learn basic laws of nature from living things
– The way ecosystems and the world work
– To gain medicines, agricultural benefits, and other
outcomes
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A cautionary note about justice
• Using wild species and biodiversity causes problems
– Little money from the rosy periwinkle’s success
went back to Madagascar, a very poor country
• Large companies have patented ancient herbal
remedies
– But indigenous people may not benefit
• Ecotourism may bring money to poor countries
– It increases pollution, harms wildlife, changes
cultures
– Whale-watching boats disrupt whale feeding
– Tourist boats frighten flamingoes
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The loss of instrumental value
• Biodiversity loss has tremendous negative effect on
the world
• The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity’s
(TEEB) 2008 report
– Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services
= $78 billion/yr
– Costs are highest for the world’s poorest
– Such an outcome is morally wrong
• Even instrumental values of resources have an
ethical component
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Species have value for their own sake
• Instrumental value (usefulness) of a species is
obvious
– But some species have no obvious, useful, value
• Another strategy: emphasize the intrinsic value of
species
– Extinction is an irretrievable loss of something valuable
• The existence of a species means it has a right to
exist
– Living things have ends and interests of their own
• “Destroying species is like tearing pages out of an
unread book”
– Humans have a responsibility to the natural world
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Religious support for intrinsic value
• Jewish and Christian traditions show God’s concern
for wild species
– God declared his creation was good and blessed it
– All wild things have intrinsic value and deserve
care
• The Islamic Quran (Koran) says the environment is
Allah’s creation and should be protected
• Native American religions and Hindus have strong
environmental ethics
• Religions can be a powerful force for preserving
biodiversity and protecting them from human harm
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Aldo Leopold’s land ethic
• Leopold’s 1949 essay “The Land Ethic” described an
ethic about preservation of ecosystems
• Leopold understood the importance of fire and
predators in maintaining ecosystem health
– He advocated for protection of wilderness (wild
places) and human-dominated land
• Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac stated:
– “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the
integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic
community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.”
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Biodiversity is declining
• Biodiversity includes genetic diversity in species
– And the diversity of species, communities, and
ecosystems
• Two measures calculate biodiversity
– The number of species
– How “even” the species are
• A habitat with low biodiversity is dominated by one
species with few members of other species
• Diversity is higher if dominance of any one species
is low
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How many species are there?
• Almost 2 million species have been described
– But most people don’t know about the great
diversity of species
• Groups rich in species: flowering plants and insects
• Conspicuous or commercially important groups are
more explored and described
– Birds, mammals, fish, trees
• Fully exploring biodiversity would require a major
effort
– Species estimates rise as rain forests are
explored
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The decline of biodiversity
• Biodiversity is declining in the U.S. and the world
• Endemic species: are found only in one habitat
– They are especially at risk
• Some areas are very vulnerable to species loss
– These are the focus of special conservation efforts
• The biota of North America, although well-studied, is
still not well-known
– Over 500 species (100 vertebrates) are now
extinct
– One-third of almost 21,000 species are vulnerable,
imperiled, or extinct
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North America’s species are declining
• Species in freshwater habitats are at greatest risk
– Mussels, crayfish, fishes, amphibians
– The American Southeast has the greatest diversity
of any freshwater bivalve (mussels, clams) group
• Species populations are more important than a
species’ existence
– Populations contribute to biological wealth
• Well-studied species populations are declining
– Fish and amphibians
– Over 25% of North American birds are declining
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The alarming global loss of biodiversity
• The background (past) extinction rate is less than
one extinction every thousand years for mammals
– Except for the five great extinction events
• Current extinction rate = 100–1,000 times greater
than past rates
– For mammals and birds = 20–25 species per
100 years
– Rates for all groups = 850 species over 500 years
– 23% of mammal species and 12% of bird species
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Who is going extinct?
A comprehensive survey of more than 47,000 species
categorized by level of risk of extinction
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The tropics houses most threatened
species
• The tropics have almost unimaginable biodiversity
• 43 species of ants occur on one tree in Peru
– Equal to all ant fauna of the British Isles
• 300 species of trees on a 2.5-acre plot
– 1,000 species of beetles on one tree species in
Panama
• Tropical forests are also experiencing the highest rate
of deforestation
– The species inventory is so incomplete it’s almost
impossible to assess extinction rates
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Why are species declining?
• Past extinctions were caused by climate change,
plate tectonics, and asteroid impacts
• Current threats to biodiversity are described by
HIPPO
– Habitat destruction
– Invasive species
– Pollution
– Population
– Overexploitation
• Species experience combinations of these factors
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Biodiversity loss will be greatest in the
developing world
• In the developing world, biodiversity is greatest
– So is human population growth
• Asia and Africa have lost 67% of their original natural
habitat
– People’s desire for a better life
– Desperate poverty
– Global market for timber and other resources
• We must reduce human population growth and
resource consumption
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Biodiversity loss: habitat conversion
• Habitat loss has caused 36% of all extinctions
– Conversion, fragmentation, simplification, intrusion
• Species are adapted to specific habitats
– When the habitat changes, the species goes with it
• Conversion of natural areas to farms, housing, malls,
marinas, industrial centers
– Forest cover has been reduced by 40%
– North American songbird losses are due to lost
winter habitat and fragmentation of summer habitat
– Croplands support fewer species than grasslands
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The border of Haiti and the Dominican
Republic
Insert Fig. 6-7
Haiti’s tremendous loss of forests has caused species loss,
erosion, and water quality problems
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Biodiversity loss: habitat fragmentation
• Natural landscapes have large patches of habitat
connected to other similar patches
• Human-dominated landscapes consist of a mosaic of
different land uses
– The patches contrast with neighboring patches
• Fragments of habitat support small numbers and
populations of species
– Species become vulnerable to extinction
• Species that require large areas, grow slowly, or have
unstable populations are most vulnerable
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Habitat fragmentation breaks up natural
areas
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Fragmentation increases edge areas
• Edge habitats expose species to predators and nest
parasites
– The endangered Kirtland’s warbler in Michigan
depends on jack pine trees
– Brown-headed cowbirds lay their eggs in the
warbler’s nest
• Roadways kill a million animals each day
– More animals are killed than by hunters
– Overpasses and tunnels provide safe corridors
– Amphibians are particularly affected
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Biodiversity loss: simplification and
intrusion
• Simplification of habitats by removing trees and
channelizing (straightening) streams
– Changes forest microhabitats
– Reducing fish and invertebrate species in streams
• Intrusion of human structures in habitats
– Millions of birds crash into telecommunication towers
– Cell phone tower lights affect birds migrating at night
– Up to a billion birds die each year by crashing into
windows
– The FCC must come up with a plan to protect birds
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Biodiversity loss: invasive species
• An exotic (alien) species: is introduced into an area
from somewhere else
– Most can’t survive, or their populations stay low
• Invasive species: thrive, spread, and may eliminate
native species
– By predation or competition
• Accidental introductions of species:
– Fleas on rats brought the bubonic plague to
Europe, threaten bird species, and eat crops
– Red imported fire ants kill 20% of songbird babies
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The red imported fire ant
The fire ant damages crops and domestic animals, and
contributes to the decline of wild species
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May I introduce…
• Species have been deliberately introduced
– Kudzu and salt cedar were planted to control erosion
• Horticultural desirables: attractive plants
– It cost $110 million to remove Japanese knotweed
from London before the 2012 Olympics
• Aquaculture: the farming of shellfish, seaweed, and
fish
– Introduces parasites, seaweeds, invertebrates,
pathogens
– Species escape and enter nearby waterways
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Japanese knotweed—an invasive plant
Japanese knotweed can break foundations, outcompete other
plants, and grow without seeds from underground stems
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We have always introduced species
• European colonists brought weeds and plants to
America
– Many field, lawn, and roadside plants are exotics
• Animals have been introduced to North America
– House mouse, Norway rat, wild boar, starling,
horse
– Exotics cost the U.S. $137 billion each year
• North American animals are exported to other areas
– Gray squirrels outcompete red squirrels in Europe
• Exotic plants may be harder for animals to eat
– Keeping energy and materials out of the food
chain
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The house cat—a destructive exotic
Free-roaming house cats kill over a billion mammals and
birds each year
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Biodiversity loss: pollution
• Pollution directly kills plants and animals
– Fertilizer runoff into the Mississippi River has
created an enormous “dead zone” in the Gulf of
Mexico
• Pollution destroys or alters habitats
– Oil spills kill seabirds and sea mammals
– Pesticides travel up the food chain
– Sediments kill species in lakes, rivers, and bays
– Climate change is already impacting species
• Pathogen pollution: human wastes can spread
pathogenic microorganisms to wild species
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Intersex fish have male and female organs
Pollution from run-off, industry, and sewage can cause fish to
have both male and female organs
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Biodiversity loss: human population
• Human populations put pressure on species
– Direct use, habitat conversion, pollution
– People use resources species need
• Even if each person uses small amounts of
resources, resources can still be overused
– People with highly consumptive lifestyles have a
disproportionate effect on the environment
• Different levels of consumption and numbers of
people drive tensions between countries
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Biodiversity loss: overexploitation
• Overexploitation: overharvest of a species
– Removing individuals faster than they can
reproduce
– Driven by greed, ignorance, desperation, poor
management
– Overcutting forests, overgrazing, overhunting, etc.
• Trade in exotics: trafficking in wildlife
– Illegal trade generates $12 billion/yr, the third
largest illicit income source after drugs and guns
– Consumers willingly pay huge prices for “luxuries”
(e.g., polar bear rugs, exotic pets, teak furniture)
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Black rhinos are poached for their horns
Black rhino horn is prized in traditional Asian medicine and as
ornamentation
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Greed drives overexploitation
• The prospect of extinction does not stop exploiters
– Huge profits drive poaching and the black market
trade
• Exotic pets (fish, reptiles, birds) are taken from the
wild, but most do not survive
– Breeding populations are decreased
• The U.S. 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act
– Stops wild capture of declining birds, upholds
treaties, and supports sustainable breeding
programs
• The European Union forbids importing wild birds
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Consequences of losing biodiversity
• A species’ intrinsic value is self-explanatory
• We need biodiversity for survival
– For ecosystem goods and services, medicines,
aesthetics, recreation, and ecotourism
• Keystone species: play a vital role to survival of
other species
– Predators control herbivores
– Umbrella species: larger animals that need
unspoiled habitat (wolves, elephants, tigers,
moose, etc.)
• Most declining species are K-selected species
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Moving forward
• What if humans cause a species to go extinct?
– The natural world is less beautiful or interesting
• There are glimmers of hope
– Species thought to be extinct aren’t
– New populations of rare species are discovered
• New protections emerge from a change in policy
– The EU’s concern over avian flu limits bird imports
• Scientific accomplishments and captive breeding
– A rhinoceros baby was born from frozen semen
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Captive breeding of a rare species
Captive breeders can use frozen semen to produce
black-footed ferrets, an extremely rare animal
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Saving wild species: conservation biology
• Scientists are leaders in protecting biodiversity
– They know what is out there and what is declining
• But laws and enforcement are also needed
– People need to look at the big picture
• Conservation biology: focuses on protection of
populations and species
– Uses captive breeding, monitoring, and research
• Taxonomy: the cataloging and naming of species
– Understanding species and identifying those in
trouble
– A lack of experts makes it hard to find solutions
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Individuals and corporations can help
• Individuals can help protect biodiversity
– Personal choices (purchases, driving, chemical
use)
– Support non-profits and push for policy actions
– Push corporations to work in more sustainable
ways
– “Citizen scientists” help gather data on species
• Businesses are realizing that biodiversity loss
can harm their profits
– Biodiversity-friendly investing is increasing
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Nonprofit organizations can help
• People can contribute to nonprofit organizations
– World Wildlife Fund, Audubon Society
• People can “sponsor” species
– These are “charismatic” (widely appealing)
species
• Land conservation protects multiple species
• Zoos educate people about conserving
biodiversity
– Captive breeding may be the only thing keeping
a species from extinction
– This is not sustainable but may buy us some time
• Botanical gardens help save plant species
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Citizen Science: The Great Sunflower
Project
Citizen scientists gather data on species, which can help
answer why species such as pollinators are declining
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Governments make public policies
• Public policies and agencies to make and support
them are necessary to protect species
• In the U.S., wildlife resources are public resources
– The government holds these resources under the
Public Trust Doctrine and is obliged to protect
them
– State fisheries and wildlife agencies do the
protecting
• The law may require federal jurisdiction
– Endangered species and game animals
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Game animals in the United States
• Game animals are hunted for sport, meat, pelts
• Early on, species were hunted to extinction (great auk,
heath hen, passenger pigeon)
– Or near extinction (bison, turkey)
• Regulations established hunting seasons and limits
– Some species were given complete protection
• Wild turkeys were hunted almost to extinction
– Protection of birds and habitats increased numbers
– They are not an introduced pest in the western U.S.
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Hunting and conservation
• Hunting and trapping fees help save habitats
– Organizations raise funds for species to hunt
• Defenders of hunting argue that their prey lack
predators
– Increased prey eat crops, collide with cars, etc.
• Hunters may think species are declining
– But managers may think numbers are too high
• Others want to end hunting and trapping
– Some practices (leghold steel traps) are cruel
• Predators can restore natural checks and balances
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Wild cougar are running out of room
This cougar was on a suburban roof—it is getting harder to
find wild areas to return big predators to ( 60 minutes)
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Too many animals
• Government agencies manage wild animals
• Many nuisance animals thrive in urban areas
– Garbage attracts opossums, skunks, and deer
– These animals create health hazards (i.e., rabies)
• The USDA’s Wildlife Services kills 2.5 million
animals per year
– By poisoning, trapping, and other devices
– Native (i.e., raccoons) and exotic (i.e., starlings)
species are killed
– This limits negative human–wildlife interactions
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Protecting endangered species
• Government policies protecting animals are essential
to prevent extinction
– Even when cultural standards change
– Laws and policies ensure protection
• Lacey Act (1900): forbids interstate commerce in
illegally killed wildlife
– Protects wildlife from illegal killing or smuggling
– The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service can bring
federal charges against those violating wildlife
laws
– Violators pay fines or serve jail time
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The Endangered Species Act (1973)
• The ESA protects endangered species: in imminent
danger of becoming extinct if it is not protected
– Includes genetically distinct populations
(subspecies)
• It also protects threatened species: those in jeopardy
but not yet endangered
• Fines are levied for killing, trapping, uprooting
(plants), or engaging in commerce of these species
• Administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
– And the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration Fisheries Service
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Examples of endangered species
Without protection, these species will go extinct
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How is a species listed for protection?
• Listing: by the appropriate agency, individuals,
groups, or state agencies
– Based on the best available information
– Does not include any economic impact of listing
• Critical habitat: designated as areas where a species
is or could spread as it recovers
– Includes privately held lands
• Recovery plans: designed to allow listed species to
survive and thrive
– Developed by the appropriate agency
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Alternatives and roadblocks to the ESA
• By 2011, 1,990 species were listed for protection
– 251 other candidate species are waiting to be listed
• Political battles have prevented its reauthorization
• Development, timber, recreational, mining, and other
groups oppose it
– They believe it limits their property rights
• Threatened and Endangered Species Recovery Act
would have severely limited species protection
– Scientists strongly objected to it
– It passed the House but not the Senate
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Conflicting values about the ESA
• Critics say the Endangered Species Act is a failure
– Only 23 species have recovered and been delisted
• But the ESA is succeeding despite handicaps
– The two major causes of extinction (habitat loss and
invasive species) are increasing
– Species numbers are critically low before listing
– 41% of species have stabilized or increased—a
success
• Some critics say the act does not go far enough
– Protection only occurs with listing and a recovery
plan
– Candidate species go extinct before being listed
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The ESA designates critical habitat
• Opponents feel that designating critical habitat places
unwanted burdens on property owners
– They feel it does not help conserve species
– TESRA would have identified, but not required,
areas of “special value” for species
• But designating critical habitat works
– Species with critical habitat have been twice as
likely to recover
• Current efforts are taking an ecosystem approach
– Protecting critical habitats of multiple species
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Improving the ESA
• In 2006, 6,000 scientists signed a letter to the Senate
urging them to keep and strengthen the ESA
• The ESA formally recognizes the importance of
preserving species
– Regardless of their economic importance
– Listed species have legal rights to protection
– It shows an encouraging attitude towards nature
• Tax breaks and incentives to landowners may help
– The Endangered Species Recovery Act (ESRA)
(2007)
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Seeing success in protecting species
• Some species have successfully recovered
– The gray wolf
• Birds of prey have recovered and been delisted
– Both the bald eagle and peregrine falcon had
thinner eggs due to the pesticide DDT
– Once DDT was banned in the U.S. and Canada,
numbers increased
– The Migratory Bird Treaty Act and the Bald and
Golden Eagle Protection Act still protects them
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The American bald eagle
The Endangered Species Act worked in increasing eagle
numbers so it could be delisted
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Fly away home
• The last remaining whooping crane flock had full-time
monitoring and protection
– From 14 cranes in 1939, 279 cranes now exist
– The migratory flock flies between Texas and
Canada
– Nonmigratory flocks live in Florida and Louisiana
• 105 birds make up a new Florida–Wisconsin migratory
flock
– They were “taught” their migratory path by following
an ultralight aircraft
• There is hope these vulnerable flocks will succeed
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Whooping cranes and pilot
The pilot is leading this flock of whooping cranes in their
migration from Wisconsin to Florida
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Protecting biodiversity internationally
• Efforts are being made globally to protect species
– Especially in the tropics
• Requires immense cooperation among local, state,
and federal authorities
– The National Biological Information Infrastructure
helps the U.S. coordinate with the rest of the world
• Partnerships between nations:
– Create treaties, monitor species, share information
– Find solutions when the needs of people clash with
species
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International developments
• International Union for Conservation of Nature
– The IUCN monitors successes and failures of
conservation efforts
• Other groups coordinate scientists or policy makers
• The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG)
– Advisors that keep a global database on exotics
• Policy and treaty makers formulate documents
– Convention on Biological Diversity
• Funding must be available for protection
– The Critical Ecosystems Partnership fund, etc.
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The IUCN’s Red List
• Evaluates the risk of extinction for thousands of
threatened species
• Frequently updated and available on the Internet
– In 2011, it had 18,678 species
• It classified and describes each species’
– Distribution, documentation, habitat, ecology,
conservation measures, and data sources
• Not actively engaged in preserving species, but it
– Provides the basis of conservation activities
– Provides crucial leadership
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CITES
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
– Established in the early 1970s
– 169 nations signed this international agreement
focusing on trade and wildlife
• The highest level of vulnerability: species threatened
with extinction
– Uses restrictive trade permits and may even ban
trade
– The signatory countries meet every 2–3 years
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CITES banned the trade in ivory
• Implemented in 1989 to stop the rapid decline of the
African elephant
– Fell from 2.5 million in 1950 to 470,000 in 2008
• Some countries have applied to CITES to resume ivory
sales
– Each time a sale is permitted, poaching resumes
• Any plan to protect elephants must enable people to
manage wildlife without overexploitation
– Requires a world outcry against ivory collection
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Convention on Biological Diversity
• CITES does not address biodiversity loss
• 192 states and the EU signed the Biodiversity Treaty
to conserve global biodiversity
– Drafted at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro
• Its three objectives are:
– Conservation of biodiversity
– Sustainable use of biodiversity services
– Equitable sharing of a nation’s genetic resources
• Governed by the Conference of the Parties
– The last conference was in 2010, in Aichi, Japan
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2011–2020: The Decade of Biodiversity
• The Aichi Biodiversity targets are:
– Dramatically decrease the loss of natural habitats
– Establish conservation targets for aquatic habitats
– Restore degraded areas
– Try hard to reduce pressures on coral reefs
• It will take a massive and costly effort to reach these
goals
• Lobbying by organizations prevented ratification by
the Senate
– But the U.S. still sends delegations to meetings
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Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund
• Sponsored by multiple entities and foundations
– Provides grants to NGOs and community-based
groups
– For conservation activities in biodiversity “hot spots”
• Hot spots are 34 regions making up 2.3% of Earth’s
land surface
– Contain 75% of the most threatened species
• By 2011, the fund had provided $137 million
– 1,627 partners are working on preserving
biodiversity in these hot spots
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Biodiversity hot spots
These “emergency rooms” of biodiversity are funded by the
Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund
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Stewardship concerns
• We must take steps to protect biological wealth
– Our values come from our view of species
• The UN Global Biodiversity Assessments’ themes:
– Reform policies that lead to biodiversity declines
– Address the needs of people living next to highbiodiversity areas and involve them
– Practice conservation at the landscape level
– Promote more research on biodiversity, particularly
through the Internet
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Our values show how we view species
• Is the natural world simply for humans to use?
– Or should it be managed sustainably?
• We have to convince others to conserve species
• Stemming the loss of species requires hard work
– We must focus on preserving ecosystems
• Thomas Jefferson said that if one link in nature’s
chain is lost, another might be lost
– Until the whole of things vanishes
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