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AP Mid-term Review Material 2016
Research Methods
Applied researcho
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industrial/organizational psychology- study ways of how to boost workers productivity, morale
Human Factors Psychology – psychologists keep human factors in mind when designing machines / technology. Ex. gas pedals are located a few feet away
from the car seat so that a human can reach it.
RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that physically hits his wife at least 2
times per year.) We operationally define variables so that we can replicate.
Random selection- guarantees every member of a population has an equal chance of being picked. Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100
Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative
Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at Butler would have roughly 15%
Latino-Americans).
EXPERIMENT
Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by manipulating a variable. The
disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory environment to the real world.
Experiemntal/Control condtions- experiments requires these 2 groups. The experimental group
receives the independent variable to see if had any effect.
Independent variable- manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if you’re testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or
depression.). This is given to the experimental group only.
Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome
and is often a score or number.
Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or experimental group. (group receiving
treatment) . This controls for any preexisting differences in the groups (bias). Differences in the participants is called participant relevant confounding
variable.
Placebo/ Placebo Effect- (example is a sugar pill) this controls for possible subject bias where the subjects knowledge of the treatment may cause them to
think they are having the effects.
CORRELATION
Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A Positive correlation is when both
variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.)
Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used
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Naturalistic observation- . Research conducted in natural habitat (animals or humans). No interaction with subjects.
Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger population.
STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency- mean (avg.), median (middle score), mode (most frequently occurring score)
Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1. The farther away from 0
(either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.
Scatter plots- used to show positive/negative correlations. If line goes up it’s positive.
All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines
Animal Research- Clear, scientific purpose
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- Humane treatment
- Acquire subjects legally
- Use procedures’ employing least amount of suffering feasible
Human Research- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature).
- No coercion (cannot force to do)
- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.
- No mental/physical risk/harm
-anonymity/confidentiality must be guaranteed
Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience)
Dendrites- root like, makes synaptic connections with other neurons. Receives the neurotransmitter on receptor sites
Axon - longest part of neuron.
Myelin sheath- covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses.. Breakdown of Mylin Sheath (MS) is related to Multiple Sclerosis (MS).
Terminal Buttons of axon (aka end buttons, terminal branches, synaptic knobs))- branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmit
Neuron in a resting state – negative ions within the cell and mostly positive ions on the outside
Action potential electrical message firing
Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)
Refractory period – brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)
Sodium and Potassium Ions
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Neuron has a negative charge at rest (analogy was dirty urine(negative) water in toilet
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Slightly positive charge sodium ions on the outside (analogy was clean water waiting to rush in when flushed)
Neurotransmitter_______ Function
a.) Acetylcholine (Ach)
motor movement
b.) Dopamine
motor movement
c.) Serotonin
mood
d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain
Problem associated with it
Alzheimer’s (lack of Ach)
Parkinson’s and Schizophrenia (excess)
Depression
Addictions
Reuptake – The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron
Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain such as when you sense pain
from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to raise your hand to catch a ball
Reflexes are processed by the spine.
CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) – all other nerves in your body
Autonomic – controls automatic functions of the body – such as heart, lungs
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once your parachute opens you
calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)
Somatic – controls voluntary muscle movements
STUDYING THE BRAIN
Accidents – Phineas Gage – thought, planning emotion are located in front of brain
Lesion- removal or destruction of part of the brain.
EEG- detects electrical activity of brain waves. Uses electrodes
CAT (aka CT Scan) - x-ray of brain structure only
MRI- locates brain material. Most detailed picture
PET- activity of brain in pictures. Use of radioactive glucose to locate activity by locating where metabolism of glucose is taking place
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Medulla- heartbeat, breathin
Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)
Hypothalamus – body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst
Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)
Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldn’t forget it)
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Broca’s Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)
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Wernicke’s Area- language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe (aka prefrontal cortex)- thought, planning, judgement
Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.
Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)
Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.
Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones including adrenal (adrenaline), testes (testosterone), ovaries (estrogen)
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Endocrine System Glands:
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Pituitary – controls other glands
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Thyroid – controls metabolism
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Pineal – sleep/wake cycle
Nature vs. Nurture: Best ways to answer this debate include:
Twin Studies- Bouchard found 100 sets of twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.
Finding similarities among humans from very different cultural backgrounds.
Developmental Psychology
RESEARCH METHODS
Cross-sectional –
studies participants of different ages.
Longitudinal –
studies same participants over long period of time.
Maturation-
biological influence on development. Cannot be learned (Ex.-walking, rope climbing)
Infant motor development usually in same sequence.
REFLEXES
Habituation –
decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested
with the ball.
Theory of Mind –
the belief that others think, feel and perceive – develops in the preoperational stage
 Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)
PARENTING
Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)
~Harlow’s monkeys.
Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved
that babies do not form attachment to mothers just because of nourishment but rather
contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming stressed/frightened when placed in
new situation
~Mary Ainsworth
studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother.
This suggested whether they had formed secure or insecure attachments which effected
then throughout their life. Secure babies explore environment, stressed when mom leaves
and come to parents upon return
STAGE THEORISTS
Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to
end each stage closer to the first concept.
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Trust v. mistrust-
(Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world
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Autonomy v. shame/doubt
(favorite word is “No”- shows independence, toilet training)
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Initiative v. guilt
(favorite word is Q. Why?)
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Industry (or competence)
v. inferiority
(elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at elementary
tasks.
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Identity v. role confusion
(adolescence= teens) test out different roles
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Intimacy v. isolation
(20’s-30’s)
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Generativity v. stagnation
(middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation
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Integrity v. despair.
(Late adulthood) – look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.)
life was meaningful
PIAGET”S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
SchemaAssimilationAccommodationo
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Sensorimotor
Preoperational
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Concrete operational
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Formal operational
Criticism of Piaget’s
cognitive development -
aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences,
stereotypes etc.
attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for
all 4 legged animals)
changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses,
some are cows)
(0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.
(2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism
(belief that humans make everything), establishes a theory of mind
(7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the
shape of glass changes. (Tall glass, short fat glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich
in half seems like more. Logical thinking also develops.
(11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason
Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and
pass through stages faster than expected.), Development may be more
continuous than occur in discrete stages.
KOHLBERG”S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- gave people of varying ages the Heinz Dilemma (Q. Should he steal drug
to save wife?)
o Preconventionalmorality based on rewards and punishment.
o Conventionalmorality based on social acceptance, approval. Ex. obeying laws.
o Postconventionalmorality based on ethical principles (Ex- breaking a law that you think is unjust
(civil disobedience)
Criticism of Kohlberg
from Carol Gilligan -
Boys/Girls come to moral conclusions differently.
Fluid Intelligence
our speed at which we solve abstract problems and reason. This decreases as we age.
Crystallized Intelligence
our accumulated knowledge of facts/. This stays the same as we age.
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Sensation - activation of our senses (eyes, ears, smell, taste, touch)
Selective Attention (cocktail party effect) - can only focus on one thing at a time. However, if sense carries meaning (such as hearing your name) then focuses changes.
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Step 3 – Transduction – light is transformed into neural impulses
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Rods (sensitive to night vision- black/white), cones (color vision). Hint: Co/Co (bipolar, ganglion cells)
Foveal vision (more cones, clarity aka visual acuity) vs. Peripheral vision . Rods are located at the periphery of the retina.
Step 4 In the Brain- Hubel and Weisel discovered feature detectors- specific parts of the visual cortical area that detect form, shape, horizontal lines, angles
etc.- Ex. Kittens that were not exposed to vertical lines.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
Trichromatic theory- 3 types of cones in retina blue, red, green = primary colors of light.
Opponent- Process theory- 3 pairs (6 colors) red/green, yellow/blue, black/white pairs Explains color blindness (usually a red/green deficiency) and
afterimages. (Stare at black, green, yellow flag)
HEARING
Sound waves have amplitude (height of wave-loudness) and frequency (length of wave- think of how frequent a wave comes by. This determines pitch)
Sound Localization – sound waves from the right arrive in the right ear before the left. This is how we can tell the direction of a sound. Sounds coming from directly in
front, above or behind us are more difficult to locate since the waves arrive at the same time
CHEMICAL SENSES
Taste (Gustation) – taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Smell (Olfactory) - what we taste is combination of both chemical systems
Vestibular Sense tells us about how our body is positioned and helps us maintain our sense of balance. Tubes from semicircular canals in the ear fill with liquid as
body moves. (Explains Roller coaster nausea, dizziness.)
Perception - process of understanding/interpreting our sensations
Figure ground illusion- part of visual image is the figure and part is the background (EX. Vase and two faces)
Gestalt Rules- Perceptual grouping to make objects meaningful.
a. Proximity- objects closer perceived to be grouped
b. Similarity- objects similar in appearance are grouped. watching a basketball game and seeing 5 red players and 5 green players rather than 10 players.
c. Continuity- objects with continuous form
d. Closure- filling in gaps. (Ex.- seeing a connect the dots picture and saying, “that’s a dog”
e. Connectedness- seeing objects as connected if they meet
Constancy – our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in angle, light, distance. There are 3 types of constancy (shape, size and color)
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff- experiment by Eleanor Gibson used to measure when an infant develops depth perception. (Using glass table)
Monocular cues require only one eye for depth (EX- artists use these in paintings to show depth)
a. Linear perspective- railroad tracks being drawn as in the distance
b. Relative size- larger = closer
c. Relative Height – higher in field of vision = distant
States of Consciousness
SLEEP
Circadian Rhythm- 24-25 hour biological/thought progress patterns.
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REM sleep (most dreams), also called paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but brain, heartbeat still active. REM sleeps lengthens as sleep
progresses. REM or dream sleep occurs after returning to stage 1.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia- difficulty getting or staying asleep
Narcolepsy- sudden sleep attacks
Sleep apnea- difficulty breathing during sleep
Night terrors/sleepwalking- during stage 4 deep sleep. (not nightmares)
DRUGS
Psychoactive Drugs induce altered state of consciousness.
Tolerance- varying level at which different people can feel the effects of a psychoactive drug
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Withdrawal- physical and psychological effects after stopping the use of a drug.
Stimulants- (caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine (Dopamine causes this effect)) – speed up nervous system.
Depressants- (barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol) – slow down nervous system
Hallucinogens (psychedelics) - (LSD, marijuana)
Opiates- heroine, morphine, codeine- painkillers (take place of endorphins)
Social Psychology
Mere exposure effect –
the more you see something or someone familiarity occurs, which breeds acceptance.
EX.- buying advertised namebrands, ad jingles often use popular songs, jingles. EX. once
politicians win one term in office they are much more likely to win again
Cognitive Dissonance Theory:
if behaviors and attitudes/beliefs do not match then tension arises. Attitudes or behaviors
must become consistent to relieve tension. EX. You think speeding is wrong and yet, you
speed. You either stop speeding or say speeding is ok.
Attribution Theory:
tendency to give causal explanation of behavior to persons’ situation (external) or
disposition (biological trait).
Ex. Johnny is a bad kid. Situation attribution – Johnny feeds off of other bad kids in the
class. Disposition attribution – Johnny is bad in all situations
Self-fulfilling prophecy-
ones beliefs/expectations about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to
appear to confirm the belief. (EX. - teacher is told specific students are on the verge of
significant academic growth. By the end of the year these students IQ’s grew more than
the others. This was attributed to how the teacher treated them and was called the
Pygmalion in the classroom experiment.
Fundamental Attribution error:
tendency to overestimate impact of personal disposition
In-group bias–
preference for members of own group (most similar to you in gender, race, class, age,
proximity (EX- belief that Butler students are better than Providence students (even
though this is a fact).
Bystander effect:
tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid the larger the amount of bystanders
that are present. This is known as a diffusion of responsibility- EX. Kitty Genovese
raped in NY.. Pluralistic Ignorance is the tendency for people to look to others to decide
what is right in a situation. Also people will judge the seriousness of situation before
intervening. Ex. 6th graders in park wearing headbands looking “gangsta” were likely to
be stopped by adults.
Social facilitation:
tendency to perform better (on easier tasks) with an audience
Social Impairment:
tendency to perform worse (on difficult tasks) with an audience
Conformity-
changing one’s attitudes/behaviors to match a group norm.
Asch’s study of Conformity –Q.
Which line matches the standard line? Group pressure caused participants to change
opinions (even when answer is obvious) about a third of the time. Conformity did not
increase after 3 members were in group.
Milgram’s study of Obedience:
Subjects were deceived into thinking that they were shocking someone. Participants
continued shocking other participants while they were screaming to Stop! Obedience
increased when: 1) authority close at hand 2) authority by prestigious institution 3) victim
depersonalized (in another room) 4) no role models for defiance. This experiment has
been criticized on ethical grounds. 70% went to XXX. It showed how ordinary people
can be influenced by authority figures to do immoral things.
Social loafing:
individual tendency for effort to decrease when working in groups
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Group polarization-
enhancement of group’s attitudes more toward the extreme through discussion in a group
.EX. after spending 3 hours on a hate group chat line one feels even more hatred toward
that group.
Deindividuation –
loss of self-restraint in-group situations where one becomes anonymous. “If you could be
invisible for 24 hours what would you do.
Group Think-
mode of thinking when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a
realistic appraisal of alternatives. EX- Pres. Kennedy’s advisors decided to invade Cuba
or the decision to launch the spaceship challenger or Iraq invasion.
Scapegoat theory-
when the blame of problems is placed all on one certain group to cause dislike towards
that group.
Learning (Behaviorism- observable responses to environmental stimuli)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING -(Pavlov, Watson) learning through associations. EX- the story of the women who was raped and she now gets anxieties when she is
alone with men. Stimulus (being alone with men) Involuntary Response (experiencing anxiety)
UCS-original stimulus eliciting a response (food)
UCR- natural response (salivation)
CS- conditioned or learned stimulus (bell)
CR-conditioned response (salivation). Associating food with bell elicits salivation.
Acquisition- acquired new associated behavior. (first learning to flinch to word can)
Extinction- losing behavior, no longer pairing food and bell. (no longer flinching to can)
Spontaneous recovery- after a conditioned response is extinguished; it will reappear quickly upon presence of conditioned stimulus. This is NOT
relearning.
Generalization- tendency to respond to similar CS’s (Ex. Dog salivating to doorbell).
Discrimination-ability to see difference between similar stimuli (Dog not salivating)
Watson (founder of Behaviorism)- conditioned Little Albert to cry when he saw a rat (he associated loud noises with rats)
OPERANT CONDITIONING – learning to associate behaviors (stimulus) with their consequences (Skinner, Thorndike)
Thorndike’s Law of Effect- behavior is more likely to continue if it has a positive consequence. Less likely with a negative consequence.
Reinforcers- behavior is more likely to happen.
Positive (hint: think of adding not good) reinforcer- adds something positive. EX. Good grades = money
Negative (hint: think of subtracting not bad) reinforcer- takes away something negative. Ex. Good grades = no chores
Punisher- decreases the likelihood of behavior occurring. Best when given soon after behavior.
Negative punishment- subtracting something pleasant EX. Bad grades = no car for the week
Positive punishment- add something negative (EX. Bad grades = Spanking.)
Shaping – use of operant conditioning principles to change behavior in various steps. Ex. Teaching rats to play basketball by rewarding for approaching the
ball, then for picking up the ball the for putting it through the basket.
Primary reinforcers- biological - food, water, escaping electric shock
Secondary reinforcers- need to be learned – money, grades..
Rescorla’s Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning - A cognitive view of classical conditioning, Rocco and Sparky experiment. Rocco –bell then food are
always paired and presented. Sparky – bell then food, food with no bell, sometimes food and bell together. Sparky learns less because the UCS and CS in unclear. –
Sparky and Rocco’s expectations and thoughts influence their learning.
Observational Learning (aka social learning theory)- Bandura, Bo-Bo dolls Children imitate behavior of adults beating and kicking doll, monkey see monkey do
Latent Learning and cognitive maps – Learning that takes place but is not brought out until reinforcement is given. Tolman showed how rats can learn their way
around a maze without reinforcement by making a mental representation (cognitive map). When given reward learning is apparent.
Insight Learning- Kohler studied apes that used crates to get to bananas. Apes show cognitive insight.
Language
Phonemes- smallest unit of sound language. Ex- sounding out C-A-T.
Morpheme- smallest unit of language with meaning (Ex. Pre- is not a word but carries meaning)
Syntax- rules of grammar
ACQUISITION OF LANGUAGE
Babbling Stage- googoogaagaa
Telegraphic Speech (about 2 years old) - (EX. - No book, movie). Like a telegraph they are missing several words to the sentence but you understand.
Chomsky- born with language acquisition device (nature) children learn some grammar without instruction from parents. A critical period for developing
this exists.
Overgeneralization (aka overregularization)- misapplication of grammar rules. EX “ I holded the ball”. Chomsky said this was proof that children don’t
simply model language
Skinner- language is learned, modeled (nurture) through reinforcement.
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Whorf’s Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- language controls/limits our thinking. (EX. The Department of War was changed to the Dept. of Defense and
the approval rating of this dept. immediately improved.
Thinking
Metacognition – thinking about thinking
Prototype – best example of a category (ex. Rose in the category of flower)
PROBLEM SOLVING
Algorithm- logical step by step rule that guarantees solving a problem (Ex. Searching every aisle in the grocery store )
Heuristic- a rule of thumb strategy used to solve a problem or make a judgement, a mental shortcut. (Ex- anytime you do a search on the internet.)
Availability Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based similar situations that are available in the immediate memory or come to mind first (Ex.
Fear of flying after seeing a plane crash in the news.)
Representative Heuristic- judging the likelihood of a situation based on stereotypes or prototypes (Ex. Truck drivers who read poetry or Ivy League
professors who like poetry.)
Belief Bias – make illogical conclusions to confirm preexisting beliefs. (EX. I believe blondes are dumb and I hear a blonde make a stupid statement so I say to myself,
“there’s the proof that blondes are dumb”
Belief Perseverance- tendency not to change our preexisting beliefs even in the face of contradicting evidence. (EX. I tell you that research says blondes are of equal
intelligence to brunettes yet you continue to believe blondes are dumber.
IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM SOLVING,
Ethnocentrism- tendency for people to believe that one’s culture is superior to others.
Mental Set (rigidity) – tendency for people to fall into established thought patterns or ways of solving problems. Using methods that worked in the past.
Older people may drive to the library and spend 45 mins. to look up information that could have been googled on the internet)
Functional Fixedness- inability to see a new use for an object. (EX- butter knife as screwdriver)
Confirmation Bias- tendency for people to seek out information that confirms their beliefs.
False Consensus Effect- tendency for people to overestimate the number of people who share their beliefs and values.
Framing- the way a problem is presented (EX. Meat that is 80% lean vs. 20% fat)
Divergent Thinking- thinking that searches for multiple answers.
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