Download What is a pronoun?

English Pronouns in Use
What is a pronoun?
Traditionally, pronouns refer to
words used in place of nouns, noun
phrases or clauses. The English
language has a large and welldeveloped number of pronouns.
Seven kinds of English pronouns:
 Personal
pronouns (with their
subjective, objective and genitive
cases, whether nominative,
determinative or possessive), reflexive
pronouns, reciprocal pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, interrogative
pronouns, relative pronouns, and
indefinite pronouns.
Agreement of pronouns with their
antecedents
Person, number, gender and
/or reference.
Usage of pronouns from the point
of view of structures
1. Subjective Pronouns VS. Objective
Pronouns As Subject
 He
teaches English (=Him teach
English)? I am careful (=Me be
careful)? What! I do a thing like that
(= Me do a thing like that)? I am (I/Me)
a professor? What? He is (He/ Him)
angry! They work as hard as we (do)
（=as us）. It is he who/that is to
blame=It is him that who is to blame.
It is I who/that am to blame=It is me
that/who is to blame.
 Everyone
except me/I went there. Everyone
went there except me/I. In negative
sentences are such structures, too.
 For example, John is a coward, but not I
(=not me). “Me! Marry a poor girl? No, not
I(=not me)!” She did not believe in anything,
any more than you or I/me. No one but
him/he would have thought of it.
2. Of- Genitives VS.
Possessive Determiners
We
know that the of genitives
and ’s genitives are most often
interchangeable, but it is unlikely
for the + noun + of + objective
personal pronoun to substitute
possessive determiner + noun.
That
cough will be the death of
me (* my death) one of these
days. Anything is good enough
for the like(s) of you (*your
like(s)). We did it for the honor
of him (*his honor).
By
the look of it (*its look) we
shan’t have much rain this year.
It is not difficult once you have
caught the trick of it (*its trick).
Press the button when the light
goes on—you’ll soon get the
hang of it (=the button).
3. Personal Pronouns VS.
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns rather than personal
pronouns are required after reflexive verbs like
absent (oneself from), avail (oneself of),
ingratiate (oneself with), pride (oneself on),
accuse, admire, amuse, blame, cut, defrost,
dislike, feed, get, hurt, persuade and semireflexive verbs (where the reflexive pronouns
may be omitted) like behave, shave, adjust,
dress, hide, identify...with, prepare…for, wash,
worry.
For
example, I enjoyed myself very
much at the dance, He had busied
himself in the laboratory. Conrad
and I contented ourselves with
expressing our relief. He prides
himself on his tidiness.
Tom
addressed the envelope to
himself. She made herself very
unpopular. She sat by herself
(=alone). We proved (ourselves)
innocent in court. Jane’s mother
gets herself up before 8 o’clock.
She often washes (herself) in cold
water.
But on the following occasions they
are interchangeable although I still think
the personal pronouns are more
appropriate:
(1)
After prepositions like as for, like, but
(for), except (for), besides:
Except for us/ourselves, the whole
village was asleep.
Between you and me (=between
ourselves), I think she’s left her
husband.
(2) After subordinators like as…as…,
and:
Sandra’s sister is even taller than
her/herself.
Kate and I/myself think that nobody is
involved in it.
My wife and myself were invited to
the party.
(3) After some spatial
prepositions like about, behind:
She’s building a wall of Russian
books about her/herself.
They left the apartment, pulling
the spring lock shut behind
them/themselves.
4. This/these, that/those as either
Demonstrative Pronouns or
Demonstrative Determiners
This and these can be used for both
anaphoric reference and cataphoric
reference while that and those can
only be used for anaphoric reference.
 For
example, She married Joe, and
that/this surprised me. “I may have to work
late. In that/this case, I’ll telephone.”
The first man on the moon, creatures from
outer space, the discovery of new life
forms and precious metals—those/these
were the dreams that caught people’s
imagination.
They had a lot of diamonds, and they
asked her if she could possibly get those
/these diamonds to Britain.
Most often interchangeable
 (1)
this stands for the latter and that stands
for the former: Alcohol and tobacco are both
injurious; this (tobacco /the latter) however, is
less injurious than that (alcohol/ the former).
The same is the case with these and those:
Dogs are more faithful animals than cats;
these/the latter attach themselves to places,
and those / the former to persons.
Interchangeable
(2) that stands for the latter (the extra
position外位结构): That/This is a
mistake,
 letting him go free. “What do you think
of THAT! Bob smashes up my car,
and then expects me to pay for the
repairs.”
(3) this and/or these stand for the latter:
This/*That is what he said: “How could
he
 be such a fool!” These were the facts:
on a warm February afternoon,
Gregory Clark and a friend were
cruising down Washington Boulevard
in Mustang.
(4) These stands for the nearest former
terms: As no man of seven could
reach the upper shelves, a pair of
steps was provided for Darious, and
up these he had to scramble. (Here
these stands for steps rather than for
pair.)
5. Who and whom as Objects and
Other Clause Clements
We know that who and whom are
interchangeable as subjects and objects when they
are used as interrogative pronouns or relative
pronouns, as is shown in sentences like Who(m) did
you meet in the street yesterday? Who(m) were
they supposed to do it for? For whom/*who were
they supposed to do it? I wonder who(m) you met in
the street. There’s a woman over there who(m) I
can’t help noticing.
 However,
in the following sentences who can
not be changed for whom as who here
stands for the person who: So that’s who he’s
working for. I’m who you’re looking for. Is that
who you mean/like? And whom is preferred
to who in structures where the personal
pronouns are used as object complements:

The woman whom/*who we thought to be her
turned out to be her sister.; or in structures where
the relative pronouns are used as object
complements or retained objective complements
in the clauses: I don’t know whom/*who she is
supposed to be. I don’t know whom/*who they
suppose her to be.; Or in structures where the
pronouns introducing concessive clauses are used
as objects or retained objects, whomever is
preferred: I won’t let him in, whomever/*whoever
they might think him to be. I won’t let him in,
whomever/*whoever he might be thought to be.
 Besides,
when the relative pronouns and
interrogative pronouns are used as the
subjects in the clauses, who is preferred:
Of all us men who /*whom I think should
be available for office, Thompson is the
first who comes to mind. They were
quarrelling as to who/*whom they stranger
was. Some persons, I know hot
who/*whom, think so. (I know not who=I
know not who they were)
6. That and who(m) as Relative
Pronouns
All of us may know that in restrictive
relative clauses where the antecedents are
nouns, both that and who can be used as
the subject in the clause: Any man that /who
commits such crimes should be sent to
prison. Where’s the girl who/that sells the
tickets?
 Where
the relative pronouns are used
as objects or prepositional
complementation in the clauses,
that/who(m) may be used unless there
is a preposition before the pronouns
when whom is preferred to all others:
 Every
worker ( )/ who(m)/that I saw in
the factory was wearing a boiler suit.
He is the policeman ( )/who(m)/that the
burglar fired the gun at. He is the
policeman at whom the burglar fired
the gun.
 That
is preferred though sometimes who(m)
is used when their antecedents are with
superlative adjectives, ordinal numerals,
only or very, compound indefinite pronouns
like someone, and occasionally with all, any:
You are the very people that/who(m) I want to
talk to. The only person that /who was visible
was a policeman. Is there anyone that/who(m)
you want to see? All that /who wish to apply
must do so in writing.
 However,
in relative clauses where the
antecedents are pronouns, who is
preferred to that when the
antecedents are demonstrative
pronouns that or those: Who was that
who/*that called a few minutes ago?
Those who/*that wear glasses should
have their eyes examined at regular
intervals.

And when interrogative pronouns
who and which are used as the
antecedents, the relative pronoun that
is preferred to who(m) to avoid
repetition: Who that/*whom you have
heard of defines man as a rational
animal? Which of us that/*who is thirty
years old has not got married yet?

And in sentences where he and
those as antecedents are used for
generic reference, who(m) is
preferred to all others: He who laughs
last laughs best. Whoever laughs last
laughs best. He/ The person to whom
we pay this tribute changed his party
more than once. Those/*They who
work hard deserve some reward.

When the antecedents are collective
nouns like crowd, committee, army,
denoting both personal nouns and
impersonal beings, who, which, and
that are all likely: The committee which
was (were)/that was(were)/who were
(*was) responsible for this consists of
five members.

In relative clauses with parallel
antecedents having both personal nouns
and non-personal pronouns, the relative
pronoun that is preferred because it can
stand for both animate and inanimate
beings: The men and manners that/( ) he
describes will be unfamiliar to most of his
readers. She’ll never forget the people and
things that/which amuse her most.

And in cleft sentences introduced by It,
who(m) and that (in spoken English they
can be omitted) are most likely: It was the
girl who/that/ ( ) was complaining about it.
It was Robert whom/that /( ) Taylor met. I
sometimes wonder who it is that/ *who/( )
makes the fashion. Who was it that /*who
told you that? Who was that/ who/ *that /( )
called a few minutes ago?

In existential sentences
introduced by there be or here be
with personal antecedents, who is
preferred to that though it may be
omitted in spoken English.

But when the there be structure is
itself a relative clause, that is preferred
to who: There was somebody who/ ( )
called yesterday. Here’s a teacher who/
( )will tell you how to answer the
question. Jane is one of the finest
students ( )/ that/ *who there are in the
class. John’s the only customer ( )/
that/ *who there is in the shop.

In non-restrictive relative clauses, the
relative pronoun who(m) is not to be
omitted whether they are acting as
objects or subjects in the clauses. That
is not popular as a relative pronoun to
introduce such clauses: My employer,
who/ *that has a degree in economics,
also speaks five languages fluently. Bill,
whom / *that we saw at the dance,
wants to go out with me.

However, there are occasions on
which which as subject complement in
the relative clause is preferred to either
who(m) or that: My brother is a
millionaire, which/ *who/ *that I am not.

Sometimes the relative pronoun is
used as a concessive conjunction to
mean though/although/as, in which
case that is preferred to either which or
who(m): Apt scholar that /*which/*who
he was, they were equally apt teachers,
never allowing him to linger long in error.
Lover of towns that/ *which/ *who I am,
I owe a debt to my early country life.
7.
That and which as Relative
Pronouns
 7.1 In Restrictive Relative Clauses
Usually speaking, both that and which are
possible in restrictive relative clauses, but that is
preferred to which when the antecedents are
non-personal indefinite pronouns like all, much,
little, none, any, a few, or are impersonal nouns
with superlative adjectives, ordinal numerals
(including last, next, etc.), only very, no, all, much,
little, a few, none, and any.

For example, This is the book
which /that/ ( ) I have chosen. The
doctor suggested that the illness from
which/ *that the patient was suffering
had probably been contracted in the
tropics. All that/*which remains can
be divided between you.
 There
was little that/ *which could not be
done. There is not something that *which
would disturb you (cf. I saw something in the
paper that/which would interest you. She
then proceeded to relate the little nothings
which had passed since the winter.) This is
the funniest film that /*which has ever come
from Ealing studios. Which is the first
steamship that /*which crossed the Atlantic?
All the apples that /*which fall down are
eaten by the pigs.

In the there/here be structures
with non-personal nouns, the relative
pronouns are likely to be omitted in
spoken English. And when the there
be construction is in the restrictive
clause, then the subjective relative
pronoun should be that instead of
which.

If the antecedent is a demonstrative
pronoun like that (+Noun) or those (+noun),
which is preferred to that as the relative
pronoun: There is a table that/ ( ) stands in
the corner. There are some planets that /*（）
were discovered by the ancients. You may
keep the money that/ ( ) /*which there is left
after buying your coat. I can do any practical
work that/ ( ) /*which there is to be done.

What is that which /*that/ ( ) you
promised him? I don’t like those books
which /*that/ ( ) you bought last week.
But when there is a interrogative
pronoun or an antecedent it in the
main clause, that is preferred to which:
Which is the course that /*which/ ( ) we
are to take? What is it that/ *which/ ( )
you want?

When the restrictive relative clause has
become a separated modifier which is
preferred when the antecedent is a nonpersonal noun, but that is preferred when
the separated antecedent contains only,
first, all, etc.: I put the book on the
bookshelf which/*that I had read many
times. This was the only book on the
bookshelf that /*which I had read many
times.
7.2 In Non-restrictive Relative
Clauses
 Which
is always used when the
antecedents are non-personal nouns: The
Birmingham train, which/ *that/ *( ) is
standing at Platform 4, will be leaving at
16:00. He blamed me for everything,
which/ *that/ *( ) I thought very unfair.

Whose as a relative adjective, despite
the usage as a non-personal noun, is only
used to refer to the specific noun in the
main clause rather than the whole of the
main clause or a part of it. Thus, He
admires Mrs. Brown, which/ *whose fact I
find strange. He lost his temper, at which/
*whose point I decided to go home.
8 Relative Pronouns as
Complements in Relative Clauses
8.1 In Restrictive Clauses
When personal pronouns are used as
antecedents in restrictive clauses, which,
that or zero relative pronoun may be used
as subjective complements to denote the
character, quality or type or function
instead of the person, so who is not to be
used. For example,
I am not the man which/ that/ ( )/
*who I was when you knew me first.
This is much more convincing to the
scientist which / that/ ( )/ *who I am
not than to the economist.
He is not the man which/ that/ ( )
*who his father wants him to be.
He is no longer the man which/ that/ ( )/
*who I thought him to be. The same is the
case with the relative pronouns used as
subjective/objective complements denoting
something non-personal:
The paper was enabled to become the great
property which/ that/ ( ) it is now.
I remember the time when cigarettes were
one-third of the price which/ that/ ( ) they are
now.
8.2 In Non-restrictive Relative
Clauses
In non-restrictive relative clauses
where personal nouns are used as the
antecedents, which is preferred to that
or who, and zero relative pronouns are
not allowed: Anna is a vegetarian,
which/ *who/ *( ) no one else is in our
family. He looked like a lawyer, which /
*that/ *( ) he was.

The same is the case with sentences
where the antecedents are Non-personal
nouns or adjectives:
Saladin turned the church into a mosque,
which/ *that/ *9 ) it still is today.
They think that fashion is just nonsense,
which it is not.
When overwrought, which/ *that/ *( ) he often
was, he became acutely irritable.
He feared lest people should think him
unpractical, which he was not.
9
both vs. two, none vs. neither,
every one vs. everyone
9.1 both vs. two
Both of refers to apposition while two of refers to
partiality: Both/*Two of my gloves have been lost.
You must choose one of the two (*one of both).
In the two of / the three of …, of is to show
apposition: Two of us spoke Chinese does not
mean The two of us(=We two) speak Chinese.
9.2 either of vs. neither of, etc.
Either of vs. neither of are usually followed by
singular verb forms but may sometimes be followed
by plural verbs in informal speeches: Either of his
legs was injured in the accident. Neither of them
knows/know where the man has gone.
None of and any of are singular when followed
by non-count nouns, and are either singular or
plural when followed by plural nouns completely
dependent upon the context:
None of the townspeople have /has ever seen
such weather.
None of the food was/ *were good.
I don’t think that any of the cakes are/ is left.
I don’t think that any of the money is/ *are left.
9.3 everyone vs. every one, etc.
Everyone used alone means everybody:
I stayed at work when everyone/everybody
else had gone home.
Everyone cannot be followed by of + plural nouns but
every one (denoting partiality) can: Every one of
(*Everyone of …) my Latin teachers stressed grammar.
Every one of (*Everyone of …) my English courses
dealt with the British past.

But Everyone can be followed
by prepositional phrases denoting
sphere or range: Everyone in the
village is friendly to newcomers.
 Any
one of and no one of are nearly the
same in structure as Every one of, but no
one of is not as often used as none of: It
took two of them to do the work that any one
of us could do. Any one of my Latin courses
taught me more English grammar than all
my English courses. No one/ None of her
books was a success.
10. Pronoun Concord in Number,
Gender and Person
The following sentences may help draw a
conclusion: the context decides on the usage.
Everyone was clapping their hands. Everybody
talked at the top of his voice. My friend and
roommate lent me his car. My friend and my
roommate lent their cars. The team has won its
first game. The team are on the floor taking their
practice shots at the basket. They each have their
problems. They have each his own problems.
More examples: The sailor saw a ship in
the distance. She (=the ship) was sailing
towards the rocky island. The woman said,
“The car needs some petrol. Let’s fill him
up at the next station.” (Perhaps a man
would use “fill her up” instead). China is in
Asia. It is one of the largest countries in
the world. In the last decade of the 20th
century, China began to assume her role
as a world power.

Both traditional and contemporary
English grammars have discussed
very successfully the formation, the
function and the semantics of
pronouns, but there is one issue
which is not done scientifically
enough: the classification of English
pronouns.
Everybody knows that the
classification of everything in
the world is based on a
category for evaluation;
otherwise the classification
would be misleading.


Therefore most of us authors of
grammar books have talked about
each of the above-mentioned terms
when talking about the classification
of English pronouns, but neglected
the importance of following the basic
rule of scientific research.
 When
talking about the first class of
pronouns (Personal Pronouns), we
have forgotten the personalness of
pronouns as a basis, thus failing to
mention most of the other pronouns as
impersonal pronouns and non-personal
pronouns.

When talking about indefinite
pronouns, we have always forgotten the
other pronouns, most of which are in
reality definite pronouns.

Not that the neglect of the criteria in
the discussion of classification of
pronouns will affect the students’ ability
to use the language, but that it will
seriously affect the students’ cognitive
development: the way of thinking,
which is the essence of all education
activities.

I mention the problem here not to
show that I have studied it well enough
(in fact I have only just realized the
serious error in our own teaching
activities), but to appeal to all learners
and teachers of English grammar to lay
some emphasis on the analysis of logic
in our textbooks so as to stimulate and
activate our cognitive development.
Lesson 37
Substitution
Substitution
1)
2)
3)
Generally there are 3 types of
substitution:
Nominal substitution
Verbal Substitution
Clausal Substitution
1 Nominal Substitution
We use “one”, “ones” “the same” “the
kind” “the sort”to replace a noun.
The child doesn’t like this book. Show him
a more interesting one. (= book)
There are good films as well as bad ones.
(=films)
American food is not the same as the
English kind.
(kind= food)
Slang disappears quickly, especially the
juvenile sort.
(sort=slang).
Exercise
1 Chinese food is not the same as the
French______.
2 The doctor’s tone had been ____ of cool
amusement.
3 A: Can you play the piano?
B: A little. There was ____ in the room.
Verbal Substitution
We usually use do, do so to replace a
verb.
A: We all hate hypocrisy.
B: Yes, everybody does.
(does= hates hypocrisy)
A: Mary didn’t come, did she?
B: Yes, she did. (did= came)
The usage of “ do so” and “so do”
“Do so” can replace V+O; V+A
He said he would tell the news, but he didn’t
do so. (= tell me the news)
He smokes a lot.
Does his brother do so?
(= smoke a lot)
“So+do+ subject” “ so+subject +do” can
be used as short answer. And its
opposite response is “Neither/ nor do+
subject”
A: I like playing football.
B: So does my brother.
(My brother likes playing football too.)
A: He doesn’t speak Russian.
B: Neither /nor do I .
Exercise
Rewrite the following using verbal
substition.
1 He asked me to post a letter for him,
and I have posted the letter.
2 A: He spoke rudely to your sister.
B: And he spoke rudely to me too.
Give a short response to each of the
following remarks, using “so+ do+subject”
or “ So +subject+do”
1 He came early. (I)
2 Her dress looked lovely. (it)
Clausal Substitution
 We
use “so” “not” to replace the whole
clause.
A: Do you think he’ll come tomorrow?
B: Yes, I think so. (so= that he’ll come
tomorrow).
No, I think not. (not= that he’ll not come
tomorrow.)
Exercise
Make a response to each of the following
remarks, using hints given in brackets and
using clausal substitution wherever possible.
1 There will be a storm soon. (afraid, negative)
2 The sun will shine in a minute. (guess,
negative)
4
Has Cyril finished his thesis?
(fear, negative)
5 Is John coming? (think,
negative)
Homework

Please finish doing the
exercises at the end of the lectures
in the textbook.