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English Pronouns in Use What is a pronoun? Traditionally, pronouns refer to words used in place of nouns, noun phrases or clauses. The English language has a large and welldeveloped number of pronouns. Seven kinds of English pronouns: Personal pronouns (with their subjective, objective and genitive cases, whether nominative, determinative or possessive), reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. Agreement of pronouns with their antecedents Person, number, gender and /or reference. Usage of pronouns from the point of view of structures 1. Subjective Pronouns VS. Objective Pronouns As Subject He teaches English (=Him teach English)? I am careful (=Me be careful)? What! I do a thing like that (= Me do a thing like that)? I am (I/Me) a professor? What? He is (He/ Him) angry! They work as hard as we (do) (=as us). It is he who/that is to blame=It is him that who is to blame. It is I who/that am to blame=It is me that/who is to blame. Everyone except me/I went there. Everyone went there except me/I. In negative sentences are such structures, too. For example, John is a coward, but not I (=not me). “Me! Marry a poor girl? No, not I(=not me)!” She did not believe in anything, any more than you or I/me. No one but him/he would have thought of it. 2. Of- Genitives VS. Possessive Determiners We know that the of genitives and ’s genitives are most often interchangeable, but it is unlikely for the + noun + of + objective personal pronoun to substitute possessive determiner + noun. That cough will be the death of me (* my death) one of these days. Anything is good enough for the like(s) of you (*your like(s)). We did it for the honor of him (*his honor). By the look of it (*its look) we shan’t have much rain this year. It is not difficult once you have caught the trick of it (*its trick). Press the button when the light goes on—you’ll soon get the hang of it (=the button). 3. Personal Pronouns VS. Reflexive Pronouns Reflexive pronouns rather than personal pronouns are required after reflexive verbs like absent (oneself from), avail (oneself of), ingratiate (oneself with), pride (oneself on), accuse, admire, amuse, blame, cut, defrost, dislike, feed, get, hurt, persuade and semireflexive verbs (where the reflexive pronouns may be omitted) like behave, shave, adjust, dress, hide, identify...with, prepare…for, wash, worry. For example, I enjoyed myself very much at the dance, He had busied himself in the laboratory. Conrad and I contented ourselves with expressing our relief. He prides himself on his tidiness. Tom addressed the envelope to himself. She made herself very unpopular. She sat by herself (=alone). We proved (ourselves) innocent in court. Jane’s mother gets herself up before 8 o’clock. She often washes (herself) in cold water. But on the following occasions they are interchangeable although I still think the personal pronouns are more appropriate: (1) After prepositions like as for, like, but (for), except (for), besides: Except for us/ourselves, the whole village was asleep. Between you and me (=between ourselves), I think she’s left her husband. (2) After subordinators like as…as…, and: Sandra’s sister is even taller than her/herself. Kate and I/myself think that nobody is involved in it. My wife and myself were invited to the party. (3) After some spatial prepositions like about, behind: She’s building a wall of Russian books about her/herself. They left the apartment, pulling the spring lock shut behind them/themselves. 4. This/these, that/those as either Demonstrative Pronouns or Demonstrative Determiners This and these can be used for both anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference while that and those can only be used for anaphoric reference. For example, She married Joe, and that/this surprised me. “I may have to work late. In that/this case, I’ll telephone.” The first man on the moon, creatures from outer space, the discovery of new life forms and precious metals—those/these were the dreams that caught people’s imagination. They had a lot of diamonds, and they asked her if she could possibly get those /these diamonds to Britain. Most often interchangeable (1) this stands for the latter and that stands for the former: Alcohol and tobacco are both injurious; this (tobacco /the latter) however, is less injurious than that (alcohol/ the former). The same is the case with these and those: Dogs are more faithful animals than cats; these/the latter attach themselves to places, and those / the former to persons. Interchangeable (2) that stands for the latter (the extra position外位结构): That/This is a mistake, letting him go free. “What do you think of THAT! Bob smashes up my car, and then expects me to pay for the repairs.” (3) this and/or these stand for the latter: This/*That is what he said: “How could he be such a fool!” These were the facts: on a warm February afternoon, Gregory Clark and a friend were cruising down Washington Boulevard in Mustang. (4) These stands for the nearest former terms: As no man of seven could reach the upper shelves, a pair of steps was provided for Darious, and up these he had to scramble. (Here these stands for steps rather than for pair.) 5. Who and whom as Objects and Other Clause Clements We know that who and whom are interchangeable as subjects and objects when they are used as interrogative pronouns or relative pronouns, as is shown in sentences like Who(m) did you meet in the street yesterday? Who(m) were they supposed to do it for? For whom/*who were they supposed to do it? I wonder who(m) you met in the street. There’s a woman over there who(m) I can’t help noticing. However, in the following sentences who can not be changed for whom as who here stands for the person who: So that’s who he’s working for. I’m who you’re looking for. Is that who you mean/like? And whom is preferred to who in structures where the personal pronouns are used as object complements: The woman whom/*who we thought to be her turned out to be her sister.; or in structures where the relative pronouns are used as object complements or retained objective complements in the clauses: I don’t know whom/*who she is supposed to be. I don’t know whom/*who they suppose her to be.; Or in structures where the pronouns introducing concessive clauses are used as objects or retained objects, whomever is preferred: I won’t let him in, whomever/*whoever they might think him to be. I won’t let him in, whomever/*whoever he might be thought to be. Besides, when the relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns are used as the subjects in the clauses, who is preferred: Of all us men who /*whom I think should be available for office, Thompson is the first who comes to mind. They were quarrelling as to who/*whom they stranger was. Some persons, I know hot who/*whom, think so. (I know not who=I know not who they were) 6. That and who(m) as Relative Pronouns All of us may know that in restrictive relative clauses where the antecedents are nouns, both that and who can be used as the subject in the clause: Any man that /who commits such crimes should be sent to prison. Where’s the girl who/that sells the tickets? Where the relative pronouns are used as objects or prepositional complementation in the clauses, that/who(m) may be used unless there is a preposition before the pronouns when whom is preferred to all others: Every worker ( )/ who(m)/that I saw in the factory was wearing a boiler suit. He is the policeman ( )/who(m)/that the burglar fired the gun at. He is the policeman at whom the burglar fired the gun. That is preferred though sometimes who(m) is used when their antecedents are with superlative adjectives, ordinal numerals, only or very, compound indefinite pronouns like someone, and occasionally with all, any: You are the very people that/who(m) I want to talk to. The only person that /who was visible was a policeman. Is there anyone that/who(m) you want to see? All that /who wish to apply must do so in writing. However, in relative clauses where the antecedents are pronouns, who is preferred to that when the antecedents are demonstrative pronouns that or those: Who was that who/*that called a few minutes ago? Those who/*that wear glasses should have their eyes examined at regular intervals. And when interrogative pronouns who and which are used as the antecedents, the relative pronoun that is preferred to who(m) to avoid repetition: Who that/*whom you have heard of defines man as a rational animal? Which of us that/*who is thirty years old has not got married yet? And in sentences where he and those as antecedents are used for generic reference, who(m) is preferred to all others: He who laughs last laughs best. Whoever laughs last laughs best. He/ The person to whom we pay this tribute changed his party more than once. Those/*They who work hard deserve some reward. When the antecedents are collective nouns like crowd, committee, army, denoting both personal nouns and impersonal beings, who, which, and that are all likely: The committee which was (were)/that was(were)/who were (*was) responsible for this consists of five members. In relative clauses with parallel antecedents having both personal nouns and non-personal pronouns, the relative pronoun that is preferred because it can stand for both animate and inanimate beings: The men and manners that/( ) he describes will be unfamiliar to most of his readers. She’ll never forget the people and things that/which amuse her most. And in cleft sentences introduced by It, who(m) and that (in spoken English they can be omitted) are most likely: It was the girl who/that/ ( ) was complaining about it. It was Robert whom/that /( ) Taylor met. I sometimes wonder who it is that/ *who/( ) makes the fashion. Who was it that /*who told you that? Who was that/ who/ *that /( ) called a few minutes ago? In existential sentences introduced by there be or here be with personal antecedents, who is preferred to that though it may be omitted in spoken English. But when the there be structure is itself a relative clause, that is preferred to who: There was somebody who/ ( ) called yesterday. Here’s a teacher who/ ( )will tell you how to answer the question. Jane is one of the finest students ( )/ that/ *who there are in the class. John’s the only customer ( )/ that/ *who there is in the shop. In non-restrictive relative clauses, the relative pronoun who(m) is not to be omitted whether they are acting as objects or subjects in the clauses. That is not popular as a relative pronoun to introduce such clauses: My employer, who/ *that has a degree in economics, also speaks five languages fluently. Bill, whom / *that we saw at the dance, wants to go out with me. However, there are occasions on which which as subject complement in the relative clause is preferred to either who(m) or that: My brother is a millionaire, which/ *who/ *that I am not. Sometimes the relative pronoun is used as a concessive conjunction to mean though/although/as, in which case that is preferred to either which or who(m): Apt scholar that /*which/*who he was, they were equally apt teachers, never allowing him to linger long in error. Lover of towns that/ *which/ *who I am, I owe a debt to my early country life. 7. That and which as Relative Pronouns 7.1 In Restrictive Relative Clauses Usually speaking, both that and which are possible in restrictive relative clauses, but that is preferred to which when the antecedents are non-personal indefinite pronouns like all, much, little, none, any, a few, or are impersonal nouns with superlative adjectives, ordinal numerals (including last, next, etc.), only very, no, all, much, little, a few, none, and any. For example, This is the book which /that/ ( ) I have chosen. The doctor suggested that the illness from which/ *that the patient was suffering had probably been contracted in the tropics. All that/*which remains can be divided between you. There was little that/ *which could not be done. There is not something that *which would disturb you (cf. I saw something in the paper that/which would interest you. She then proceeded to relate the little nothings which had passed since the winter.) This is the funniest film that /*which has ever come from Ealing studios. Which is the first steamship that /*which crossed the Atlantic? All the apples that /*which fall down are eaten by the pigs. In the there/here be structures with non-personal nouns, the relative pronouns are likely to be omitted in spoken English. And when the there be construction is in the restrictive clause, then the subjective relative pronoun should be that instead of which. If the antecedent is a demonstrative pronoun like that (+Noun) or those (+noun), which is preferred to that as the relative pronoun: There is a table that/ ( ) stands in the corner. There are some planets that /*() were discovered by the ancients. You may keep the money that/ ( ) /*which there is left after buying your coat. I can do any practical work that/ ( ) /*which there is to be done. What is that which /*that/ ( ) you promised him? I don’t like those books which /*that/ ( ) you bought last week. But when there is a interrogative pronoun or an antecedent it in the main clause, that is preferred to which: Which is the course that /*which/ ( ) we are to take? What is it that/ *which/ ( ) you want? When the restrictive relative clause has become a separated modifier which is preferred when the antecedent is a nonpersonal noun, but that is preferred when the separated antecedent contains only, first, all, etc.: I put the book on the bookshelf which/*that I had read many times. This was the only book on the bookshelf that /*which I had read many times. 7.2 In Non-restrictive Relative Clauses Which is always used when the antecedents are non-personal nouns: The Birmingham train, which/ *that/ *( ) is standing at Platform 4, will be leaving at 16:00. He blamed me for everything, which/ *that/ *( ) I thought very unfair. Whose as a relative adjective, despite the usage as a non-personal noun, is only used to refer to the specific noun in the main clause rather than the whole of the main clause or a part of it. Thus, He admires Mrs. Brown, which/ *whose fact I find strange. He lost his temper, at which/ *whose point I decided to go home. 8 Relative Pronouns as Complements in Relative Clauses 8.1 In Restrictive Clauses When personal pronouns are used as antecedents in restrictive clauses, which, that or zero relative pronoun may be used as subjective complements to denote the character, quality or type or function instead of the person, so who is not to be used. For example, I am not the man which/ that/ ( )/ *who I was when you knew me first. This is much more convincing to the scientist which / that/ ( )/ *who I am not than to the economist. He is not the man which/ that/ ( ) *who his father wants him to be. He is no longer the man which/ that/ ( )/ *who I thought him to be. The same is the case with the relative pronouns used as subjective/objective complements denoting something non-personal: The paper was enabled to become the great property which/ that/ ( ) it is now. I remember the time when cigarettes were one-third of the price which/ that/ ( ) they are now. 8.2 In Non-restrictive Relative Clauses In non-restrictive relative clauses where personal nouns are used as the antecedents, which is preferred to that or who, and zero relative pronouns are not allowed: Anna is a vegetarian, which/ *who/ *( ) no one else is in our family. He looked like a lawyer, which / *that/ *( ) he was. The same is the case with sentences where the antecedents are Non-personal nouns or adjectives: Saladin turned the church into a mosque, which/ *that/ *9 ) it still is today. They think that fashion is just nonsense, which it is not. When overwrought, which/ *that/ *( ) he often was, he became acutely irritable. He feared lest people should think him unpractical, which he was not. 9 both vs. two, none vs. neither, every one vs. everyone 9.1 both vs. two Both of refers to apposition while two of refers to partiality: Both/*Two of my gloves have been lost. You must choose one of the two (*one of both). In the two of / the three of …, of is to show apposition: Two of us spoke Chinese does not mean The two of us(=We two) speak Chinese. 9.2 either of vs. neither of, etc. Either of vs. neither of are usually followed by singular verb forms but may sometimes be followed by plural verbs in informal speeches: Either of his legs was injured in the accident. Neither of them knows/know where the man has gone. None of and any of are singular when followed by non-count nouns, and are either singular or plural when followed by plural nouns completely dependent upon the context: None of the townspeople have /has ever seen such weather. None of the food was/ *were good. I don’t think that any of the cakes are/ is left. I don’t think that any of the money is/ *are left. 9.3 everyone vs. every one, etc. Everyone used alone means everybody: I stayed at work when everyone/everybody else had gone home. Everyone cannot be followed by of + plural nouns but every one (denoting partiality) can: Every one of (*Everyone of …) my Latin teachers stressed grammar. Every one of (*Everyone of …) my English courses dealt with the British past. But Everyone can be followed by prepositional phrases denoting sphere or range: Everyone in the village is friendly to newcomers. Any one of and no one of are nearly the same in structure as Every one of, but no one of is not as often used as none of: It took two of them to do the work that any one of us could do. Any one of my Latin courses taught me more English grammar than all my English courses. No one/ None of her books was a success. 10. Pronoun Concord in Number, Gender and Person The following sentences may help draw a conclusion: the context decides on the usage. Everyone was clapping their hands. Everybody talked at the top of his voice. My friend and roommate lent me his car. My friend and my roommate lent their cars. The team has won its first game. The team are on the floor taking their practice shots at the basket. They each have their problems. They have each his own problems. More examples: The sailor saw a ship in the distance. She (=the ship) was sailing towards the rocky island. The woman said, “The car needs some petrol. Let’s fill him up at the next station.” (Perhaps a man would use “fill her up” instead). China is in Asia. It is one of the largest countries in the world. In the last decade of the 20th century, China began to assume her role as a world power. Both traditional and contemporary English grammars have discussed very successfully the formation, the function and the semantics of pronouns, but there is one issue which is not done scientifically enough: the classification of English pronouns. Everybody knows that the classification of everything in the world is based on a category for evaluation; otherwise the classification would be misleading. Therefore most of us authors of grammar books have talked about each of the above-mentioned terms when talking about the classification of English pronouns, but neglected the importance of following the basic rule of scientific research. When talking about the first class of pronouns (Personal Pronouns), we have forgotten the personalness of pronouns as a basis, thus failing to mention most of the other pronouns as impersonal pronouns and non-personal pronouns. When talking about indefinite pronouns, we have always forgotten the other pronouns, most of which are in reality definite pronouns. Not that the neglect of the criteria in the discussion of classification of pronouns will affect the students’ ability to use the language, but that it will seriously affect the students’ cognitive development: the way of thinking, which is the essence of all education activities. I mention the problem here not to show that I have studied it well enough (in fact I have only just realized the serious error in our own teaching activities), but to appeal to all learners and teachers of English grammar to lay some emphasis on the analysis of logic in our textbooks so as to stimulate and activate our cognitive development. Lesson 37 Substitution Substitution 1) 2) 3) Generally there are 3 types of substitution: Nominal substitution Verbal Substitution Clausal Substitution 1 Nominal Substitution We use “one”, “ones” “the same” “the kind” “the sort”to replace a noun. The child doesn’t like this book. Show him a more interesting one. (= book) There are good films as well as bad ones. (=films) American food is not the same as the English kind. (kind= food) Slang disappears quickly, especially the juvenile sort. (sort=slang). Exercise 1 Chinese food is not the same as the French______. 2 The doctor’s tone had been ____ of cool amusement. 3 A: Can you play the piano? B: A little. There was ____ in the room. Verbal Substitution We usually use do, do so to replace a verb. A: We all hate hypocrisy. B: Yes, everybody does. (does= hates hypocrisy) A: Mary didn’t come, did she? B: Yes, she did. (did= came) The usage of “ do so” and “so do” “Do so” can replace V+O; V+A He said he would tell the news, but he didn’t do so. (= tell me the news) He smokes a lot. Does his brother do so? (= smoke a lot) “So+do+ subject” “ so+subject +do” can be used as short answer. And its opposite response is “Neither/ nor do+ subject” A: I like playing football. B: So does my brother. (My brother likes playing football too.) A: He doesn’t speak Russian. B: Neither /nor do I . Exercise Rewrite the following using verbal substition. 1 He asked me to post a letter for him, and I have posted the letter. 2 A: He spoke rudely to your sister. B: And he spoke rudely to me too. Give a short response to each of the following remarks, using “so+ do+subject” or “ So +subject+do” 1 He came early. (I) 2 Her dress looked lovely. (it) Clausal Substitution We use “so” “not” to replace the whole clause. A: Do you think he’ll come tomorrow? B: Yes, I think so. (so= that he’ll come tomorrow). No, I think not. (not= that he’ll not come tomorrow.) Exercise Make a response to each of the following remarks, using hints given in brackets and using clausal substitution wherever possible. 1 There will be a storm soon. (afraid, negative) 2 The sun will shine in a minute. (guess, negative) 4 Has Cyril finished his thesis? (fear, negative) 5 Is John coming? (think, negative) Homework Please finish doing the exercises at the end of the lectures in the textbook.