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Global Journal of Medicine Researches and Studies, 1(4) 2014, Pages: 111-116
Academic Journals
Global Journal of Medicine Researches and Studies
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2345-6094
www.academicjournalscenter.org
Investigating Personality Differences among Stuttering and
Ordinary Individuals
Abdoulwahab Pourghaz *1, Elnaz Rahimi 2, Zahra Ramezani 3
1. Associate professor, Department of Education, University of Sistan and Baluchestan
2. MA of Educational Research, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan
3. MA of Educational Research, Faculty of Educational Sciences and Psychology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan
* Corresponding Author: E-mail: [email protected]
ARTICLE IN FO
ABSTRACT
Keywords:
Stuttering is one of the most common anomalies in the rhythm of speech. This anomaly
exists in all nations and languages. The present study aimed to examine personality
differences among individuals with stuttering and ordinary individuals. A descriptive
survey method was applied. The sample was selected through using both simple random
sampling and convenience sampling methods, including 20 individuals with stuttering,
with the age range of 12-30 referring to centers for speech therapy in Zahedan and 30
ordinary individuals with the same age range. The instrument for data collection was
Multifaceted Minnesota Personality Inventory (MMPI). Results indicated that people
suffering from stuttering experienced more personality issues compared to ordinary
individuals. In terms of scales such as hypochondria, depression, hysteria, psychologicalsocial deviance, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania significant
differences were found between ordinary individuals and those with stuttering problems.
Moreover, the findings demonstrated that in terms of gender, no significant difference
was found between the personality components of people who stutter.
Stuttering
Personality Traits
Ordinary Individuals
© 2014 Global Journal of Medicine Researches and Studies. All rights reserved for Academic Journals Center.
Introduction
Stuttering is one of the most common abnormalities in the rhythm of speech. This anomaly exists in all nations and languages
(Daliri, et al., 2007). For centuries and maybe for more than two thousand years, stuttering has received attention and many
different views has been proposed about its nature, causes and treatment. Although stuttering disorder may sometimes associate
with anomalies or physical difficulties, in most cases no injury or illness is found unless mere stuttering that may itself associate
with intensity and weakness under the influence of multiple natural factors (Azimi Raad, 2001: 45). The other definition of
stuttering is centered on a complex communication disorder that not only hinders speech, but also causes negative reactions and
feelings in both the speaker and a listener (Guitar, 2005).
Stuttering is also a complex psychological-kinesthetic phenomenon that temporarily or permanently occurs in pronunciation of
words and syllables, such that due to abnormal muscle contractions, the word is not pronounced correctly (Koolaee Nejad, 2003:
91). In such a disease, the patient exactly knows what speech sequence he/she intends to express, however he/she is not able to
smoothly articulate that sequence (Movsessian, 2005: 290-297). This speech impediment (dysarthria) may occur in three age
periods:
A) 2 to 4 years old: In the age of onset of speech, due to the rapid growth of lexicon, a child may start stuttering.
B) 6 to 7 years old: The beginning of school. The child may start stuttering due to emotional features and special social
adaptation of this stage facing with the first formal social experience. This period is a well-provided time for the occurrence of
the disorder.
C) Puberty: Hormonal mental and social changes provide a high-yielding base for the emergence or worsening of stuttering. The
disorder is more common among boys than girls in such a way that various studies and research obtained the ratio about 70% for
boys and 30% for girls (Fraser, 1997: 14).
Investigating Personality Differences among Stuttering …
Global Journal of Medicine Re searches and Studie s, 1( 4) 2014
Types of Stuttering
Considering different states and effects of stuttering, i.e., the duration of pauses/interruptions, their frequency and sequence, the
strength and pressure regarding to the pronunciation of letters and words, there are two types of stuttering:
Type I: Contraction Stuttering (Tonic)
It occurs due to the contraction of muscles of the mouth, pharynx, larynx and vocal cords and the patient, with this type of
stuttering, suffers from impediment and interruption to express words and pronounce the word, and strongly pushes it out and
after a while suddenly the word is uttered. This mode is more psychological.
Type II: Spastic Stuttering
In this type, usually a part (the first part) is repeated spastically. For example, the word mother is stated as M...M...M...Mother.
This is often known to be caused by a nervous-muscular physiological disorder. Sometimes both types of stuttering are seen in
patients (Milanifar, 131995: 344).
Another problem that individuals with stuttering are faced with is personality disorders. Personality, in fact, is a gradual
evolutionary phenomenon that develops and evolves and is influenced by many internal and external factors including heredity,
physical characteristics and social conditions (Shamloo, 2001: 200). In addition, in every society, there are people who, in spite
of their willingness, cannot adapt to social norms; hence, their performance endangers themselves as well as the society. Such
individuals have sick personality and cannot adapt to the society, and their behavior creates anxiety for themselves and others.
Abnormal personality is the very mental disorder that involves a wide variety of dimensions, some of which are addressed in the
current research.
Hypochondriasis "HS"
Mental obsession, fear of being infected or the belief to be infected with a serious disease that is based on wrong interpretation
and such an inappropriate fear or belief, may continue to exist despite medical assurances (Shamloo, 2007)
Depression "D"
Depression is one of the most common mood disorders worldwide. This disorder is the fourth leading cause of disease load, so
that it accounts for the largest share of non-fatal disease load in the world. Depression is associated with symptoms such as losing
energy and interest, feeling guilt, weak concentration, changes in appetite, and suicide and death thoughts (Farzadi et al., 2012).
Depression is also associated with mental rumination, anxiety as well as worry. When the person suffers from depression, he/s he
has the tendency to be full conscious, to focus on past issues and engage in related present and future difficulties (Salarifar &
Pour Etemad, 2011)
Hysteria "HY"
Hysteria is referred to as an involuntary change or limitation of physical performance due to a psychological conflict or need
(Kaplan and Sadock, 2006: 224)
Conversion hysteria is a clear somatic manifestation that has neurological aspects in most cases and yet can be regarded by the
observer as a multi-symptom disorder. This disorder can be raised and influenced by hypnosis. In hysteria, based on the needs of
the unconscious, suppressed desire or anxiety is replaced with a somatic manifestation and such a somatic function seems
understandable (Dadsetan, 2003: 222-221).
Obvious symptoms of hysteria include involuntary loss of function or dysfunction of the autonomic nervous system activity or
consciousness. Often, the symptoms occur suddenly due to acute, emotional conditions, such as numbness or paralysis of the
limbs, fainting, and so on. Sometimes symptoms of hysteria disappear as fast as they arise, and often they can be eliminated or
reduced by hypnosis (Shamloo, 2003: 140)
Psychosocial Deviance “PD"
Psychosocial deviance is among the issues addressed in the field of social pathology. Deviance is the trait attributed to some
behaviors or individuals, such as criminals or mental patients. The issue is among the early problems addressed in social
pathology. Sociologists consider the deviance not as a behavioral trait or a type of personality, but as a characteristic of certain
social states or structural functions of the social system (Mohammadi Asl, 2006: 13). In general, the sociologists accept deviance
as being defined as nonconformity with certain norms approved by a large number of people in society or community (Giddens,
2007: 294)
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Paranoia "PA"
Individuals with this type of disorder are suspicious of others. They often behavior unfriendly and show actions followed by
anger and insult to others. This group of patients suffers from unjustified doubts about the honesty of others. Diagnosis of
paranoia is different from that of schizophrenia, since the symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations, does not exist in
paranoid, and less damage in social and occupational functioning is seen. This disorder is more common in men and is alternately
linked to with avoidant disorder, borderline and schizotypal (Davison and Neil, 2007: 153)
Psychasthenia (Mental Fatigue) "PT"
This disorder is similarly seen in individuals with mental illness suffering from phobia or obsession. Individuals with
psychasthenia show symptoms of anxiety, phobia, fear, rumination, self-doubt and pointless, and worthless apprehension. The
disorder can be seen in obsessive-compulsive individuals who feel frightened by phenomenon, show inability to decide and
cannot focus their mind on a subject (Nora, 2009).
Schizophrenia "SC"
Schizophrenia is one of the most common severe mental disorders that is associated with turbulence in the content of thoughts,
perception, emotion, self-perception, motivation, interpersonal behavior and performance (Halgin & Whitbourne, 2010).
Vulnerability of schizophrenia does not have only one cause in spite of various treatments, only small proportion of patients
suffering from schizophrenia can completely recover, and majority of them suffer from mental symptoms and problems during
the whole life (Sadok & Sadok, 2005).
Hypomania "Ma"
It is a mood disorder with symptoms of high or continuously irritable mood over a period of at least 4 days, the patient
experiences a decreased need for sleep, talking more than usual or feeling pressure if unaddressed, jumping thoughts,
distractibility, increased activities regarding social, occupational, educational, sexual goals as well as high profligacy (Zahiroddin
& Karamad, 2005). The neurotic base of stuttering was first analyzed in 1913-1914. Qorbani and Haidari (2011) in a study
entitled “Students' Attitudes towards Individuals with Stuttering” indicated that according to personality traits scale, assuming
positive traits of "forthright", "bold", "clever", "competent", "confident", except for the trait of "quiet", a significant difference
was observed among all traits. In general, these characteristics’ mean in individuals without stuttering were more than individuals
with stuttering. In addition, assuming negative traits of "anxious", "timid", "shy", "aggressive", "imbecile", "moderate",
"taciturn", "incompetent", except for the trait of "aggressive", a significant difference was observed among all traits. In other
words, stuttering individuals had a higher mean value in such traits than individuals without stuttering. Also, it was indicated that
there was no significant difference between the participants’ gender and their attitudes toward stuttering individual.
Narimani et al. (2009), in a study entitled “Comparison of Emotional Intelligence and Attachment Styles in Children with
Stuttering and Children without Stuttering”, concluded that the mean value of students without stuttering on components of
appraising others emotions was lower than that of students without stuttering. Moreover, there was a significant difference
between students without stuttering and those with stuttering in terms of the components of appraising others’ emotions. Sadok
and Sadok (2007) found that individuals suffering from stuttering may have certain other clinical characteristics such as failure
and depression. In a study carried out in Iraq conducted by Al-Jawadi and Abd-Al-Rahman (2007), the prevalence of stuttering
among children with 1 to 12 years old was estimated about 3%. Oussi and Diller (1998) in Turkey indicated that children and
adolescents suffering from stuttering showed the symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder as well.
The main purpose of the present study was to examine personality differences of individuals with stuttering and ordinary
individuals. Accordingly, the hypotheses are as follows:
1. There is not any significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding their
personality traits.
2. There is not any significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding
personality components (hypochondria, depression, hysteria, psychosocial deviance, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and
hypomania).
3. There is a significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding their gender.
Methods
This is a descriptive-survey study which is an applicable research conducted on stuttering subjects (N = 20) and ordinary
individuals (N = 30). The population included all the stuttering individuals who suffer from dysarthria. Since the process of
sample selection, through random or non-random methods was difficult and the number of such individuals decreases by the age,
two sampling methods were used. For stuttering individuals, convenience sample method was applied selecting 20 individuals,
with an age range of 12-30 years, referring to centers for speech therapy in Zahedan. For ordinary people, 30 participants in the
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same age range were randomly selected and the questionnaire was distributed among them. Multifaceted Minnesota Personality
Inventory was used as the instrument for data collection.
The MMPI is a standard questionnaire for calling for a wide range of self-reporting characteristics and their scoring which
provides a quantitative index of individuals’ emotional adjustment and attitudes toward participation in the study. The basic form
of MMPI was developed by Stark R. and Jee Charnly McCain at University of Minnesota. Studies on the reliability and validity
of the inventory indicate that it has an average level of short-term stability and internal consistency. For example, Hansley,
Hanson and Parker conducted a meta-analysis in 1970’s and concluded that the inventory is quite reliable in all scales and its
reliability coefficients ranges from 0.71 to 0.84.
Results
H1: There is not any significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding
personality traits.
To test the above hypothesis, an independent t-test was performed and the results can be seen in Table 1.
Table (1): Results of t-test regarding the first hypothesis
Group
N
M
SD
T
Ordinary Individuals
30
20.23
10.27
10.70
Stuttering Individuals
20
15.56
11.23
df
Sig
48
0.000
The above table indicates that the MMPI mean and SD values for children with stuttering are 56.15 and 12.23, respectively;
while these values for ordinary children are 23.20 and 10.27. Therefore, calculated t (10.70) is significant on 99% level (p <0.01).
Thus, the H0 is rejected and children with stuttering have more personality difficulties compared to ordinary children.
H2: There is not any significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding
personality components (hypochondria, depression, hysteria, psychosocial deviance, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and
hypomania).
Group
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Ordinary Individuals
Stuttering Individuals
Table 2: Results of t-test regarding the second hypothesis
Component
frequency
Mean
SD
HS
30
0/30
8/18
HS
20
2/83
5/66
D
30
0/36
8/81
D
20
1/62
4/51
HY
30
0/83
5/63
HY
20
8/12
8/68
PD
30
5/60
8/68
PD
20
6/82
5/63
PA
30
5/16
8/10
PA
20
6/32
5/88
PT
30
5/66
5/02
PT
20
6/03
0/00
SC
30
5/00
5/18
SC
20
6/43
5/48
MA
30
0/23
8/13
MA
20
4/62
8/66
T
df
Sig
- 0/562
48
0.002
- 6/048
48
0.000
- 83/833
48
0.000
- 6/824
48
0.000
- 2/266
48
0.000
- 2/664
48
0.000
- 6/633
48
0.000
- 5/450
48
0.019
Results of the above table suggests that considering the MMPI test, the mean value of the HS (Hypochondria) scale for ordinary
individuals and stuttering individuals is 3.03 and 5.10, respectively. The calculated t is -3.265. The mean value of the D
(Depression) scale for ordinary individuals and stuttering individuals is 3.07 and 8.75, respectively and the calculated t is -6.349.
The mean value of the HY (Hysteria) scale for ordinary individuals and stuttering individuals is 3.10 and 9.85, respectively and
the calculated t is -10.165. The mean value of the PD (Psychosocial deviance) scale for ordinary individuals and stuttering
individuals is 2.63 and 6.95 respectively and the calculated t is -6.954. The mean value of the PA (Paranoia) scale for ordinary
individuals and stuttering individuals is 2.87 and 6.05, respectively and the calculated t is -5.566. The mean value of the PT
(Psychasthenia) scale for ordinary individuals and stuttering individuals is 2.67 and 7.30, respectively and the calculated t is 5.774. The mean value of the SC (Schizophrenia) scale for ordinary individuals and stuttering individuals is 2.33 and 7.40
respectively and the calculated t is -6.600, and the mean value of the MA (Hypomania) scale for ordinary individuals and
stuttering individuals is 3.50 and 4.75, respectively and the calculated t is -2.423. Calculated t values are all significant on 99%
level, except for the scale of MA, in which a significant difference was found on 95% level. Thus, stuttering individuals have
more personality disorders compared to ordinary individuals.
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H3: There is a significant difference between individuals with stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding their
gender.
Group
Male
Female
Table 3: Results of t-test regarding the third hypothesis
N
M
SD
T
Df
9
56.11
10.26
0.014
18
11
56.18
12.46
Sig
0.98
The above table indicates that the MMPI test mean and SD values for male children with stuttering are 56.11 and 10.26,
respectively, while these values for female children with stuttering are 56.18 and 12.46 and the calculated t (0.014) is significant
on 95% level (p <0.05). Thus, the null H0 is confirmed and there is not any significant difference between individuals with
stuttering and individuals without stuttering regarding their gender.
Discussions
Language is an instrument for communication. It is a communication tool by which individuals can express their thoughts and
feelings. Smooth and fluent mode of expression of feelings and thoughts affect individuals and provide feelings of satisfaction. If
such a satisfaction does not occur, mental health is damaged and the personality is also affected in long term. The environmental
factors also may double the effect. Stuttering is a communication disorder that can deeply affect interpersonal relationships
(Manning, 2000).
The cognitive-behavioral approach helps provide an appropriate environment inside the family and in society through
investigating communication styles among helpless children, applying appropriate communication skills such as mutual respect,
understanding, etiquette, punctuality, self-awareness, empathy, establishing effective relationships, establishing interpersonal
relationships, increasing confidence, coping with excitement and stress and avoiding cognitive errors in verbal and nonverbal
relationships to children suffering from stuttering. This approach focuses on methods encompassing the control of conflict,
negative emotion and stress (Bolton, 2005 as cited in Tuzande Jani, Naimi & Ahmad Pour, 2011).
The aim of the present study was to answer the question that whether personality differences among individuals with stuttering
and ordinary individuals is significantly different.
According to the results obtained from the sample, personality traits and components of these personality traits (hypochondria,
depression, hysteria, psychosocial deviance, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania) were significantly different
for stuttering individuals and ordinary individuals. Accordingly, the followings are recommended:
12-
The presence of a psychologist and counselor at schools seems necessary (especially primary schools).
Teachers should be familiar with psychological problems and be prepared to deal with students who have personality
disorders through training courses in the field of psychology. The implementation of educational courses on cognitivebehavioral skills related to difficulties, level of learning and establishing relationships with others may help increase the
rate of the disorder.
Finally, the implementation of these measures is expected to drop the mental pressure of stuttering people and provide them with
an easiness to deal with the anomaly so that their personality disorders decrease.
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