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ADJECTIVES • Definition • Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles — a, an, and the — are adjectives. • the tall professor • the lugubrious lieutenant • a solid commitment • a month's pay • a six-year-old child • the unhappiest, richest man Position of Adjectives • Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of popping up almost anywhere in a sentence, adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify. Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order according to category. (See Below.) When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody — are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun: • Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished. Something wicked this way comes. Degrees of Adjectives • Adjectives can express degrees of modification: • Gladys is a rich woman, but Josie is richer than Gladys, and Sadie is the richest woman in town. • The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable. Formation of Comparative Adjectives • There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective: • short adjectives: add "-er" • long adjectives: use "more" Some examples of short adjectives • • • • • • • • 1-syllable adjectives old, fast 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y; -ly; -ow; -le happy, easy, readysilly, hilly, holyhollow, shallow, mellowable, simple, ripeNormal rule: add "-er"old > olderVariation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -rlate > laterVariation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the last consonantbig > biggerVariation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to ihappy > happierLong adjectives other 2-syllable adjectives modern, pleasant all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectualNormal rule: use "more" or “less”modern > more modern expensive > more expensiveinteresting > less interesting The following are some of the adjectives with irregular forms • • • • good > better well (healthy) > better bad > worse far > farther/further With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use either '-er' or 'more': • quiet > quieter/more quiet • clever > cleverer/more clever • narrow > narrower/more narrow • simple > simpler/more simple Use of Comparative Adjectives • Comparative adjectives are used to compare (only) 2 things. If both items of comparison are mentioned in the sentence, the comparative adjective is followed by "than". • Examples: • John is 1m 85. He is tall. But Chris is 1m 90. He is taller than John. • China is big, but Russia is bigger. • I want to have a more powerful computer. • Is Croatian more difficult than English? • NOTE1: Although we use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things), in fact one or both of the things may be a group of things. • Mt Everest is higher than all other mountains. • There are hundreds of mountains, but we are still comparing one thing (Mt Everest) to one other thing (all other mountains). • NOTE2: When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the": • England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest) • My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous) Use of Superlative Adjectives • We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things). • John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest. • Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest. • Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world. ADVERBS z z z z z z z An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics. John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?) Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?) Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?) But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other adverbs (It works very well). Look at these examples: Modify an adjective: - He is really handsome. (How handsome is he?) - That was extremely kind of you. Modify another adverb: - She drives incredibly slowly. (How slowly does she drive?) - He drives extremely fast. ADVERB FORM z z z z z z z We make many adverbs by adding -ly to an adjective, for example: quick (adjective) > quickly (adverb) careful (adjective) > carefully (adverb) beautiful (adjective) > beautifully (adverb) There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below: Adjective ending do this adjective adverb most adjectives add – ly quick quickly -able or –ible -y -ic change -e to –y regrettable regrettably change -y to –il happy happily change -ic to –ically economic economically Kinds of Adverbs Here you can see the basic kinds of adverbs z z z z z Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs. He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?) They helped us cheerfully. (How did they help us?) James Bond drives his cars fast. (How does James Bond drive his cars?) z z z z z Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs. Please sit here. (Where should I sit?) They looked everywhere. (Where did they look?) Two cars were parked outside. (Where were two cars parked?) z z z z z z z z Adverbs of Time Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time mainly modify verbs. They can answer the question "when?": He came yesterday. (When did he come?) I want it now. (When do I want it?) Or they can answer the question "how often?": They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?) We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?) z z z z z Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?) Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?) He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously did he drive?) ADVERB POSITION z When an adverb modifies a verb, there are usually 3 possible positions within the sentence or clause: 1. FRONT - before subject Now I will read a book 2. MID - between subject + verb I often read books. z 3. END - after verb/object z z I read books carefully. z z z When an adverb modifies an adjective or another adverb, it usually goes in front of the word that it modifies, for example: She gave him a really dirty look. We quite often study English. Adverbs of Frequency z z z z Adverbs of Frequency are Adverbs of Time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples: daily, weekly, yearly often, sometimes, rarely You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency. ARTICLES z z z z z What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns. English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article. the = definite article a/an = indefinite article For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book. z z z Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the. "A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or nonparticular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind. Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely. Indefinite Articles: a and an z z z z "A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. For example: "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available. "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here. Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So... z z z z z a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse z z In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred. A historical event is worth recording. z z z z If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article: a broken egg an unusual problem a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound) z z z z Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group: I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.) The definite article z z z z The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example: "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me. "I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat. "I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo. OMISSION OF ARTICLES z z z z Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are: Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless you are referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.") Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science Excersize: z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate article, a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if no article is needed. 1. I want ____ apple from that basket. 2. ____ church on the corner is progressive. 3. Miss Lin speaks ____ Chinese. 4. I borrowed ____ pencil from your pile of pencils and pens. 5. One of the students said, "____ professor is late today." 6 Eli likes to play ____ volleyball. 7. I bought ____ umbrella to go out in the rain. 8. My daughter is learning to play ____ violin at her school. 9. Please give me ____ cake that is on the counter. 10. I lived on ____ Main Street when I first came to town. 11. Albany is the capital of ____ New York State. 12. My husband's family speaks ____ Polish. 13. ____ apple a day keeps the doctor away. 14. ____ ink in my pen is red. 15. Our neighbors have ____ cat and ____ dog. Answers z z z z z z z z z z z z z z z 1. I want an apple from that basket. 2. The church on the corner is progressive. 3. Miss Lin speaks Chinese. (no article needed) 4. I borrowed a pencil from your pile of pencils and pens. 5. One of the students said, "The professor is late today." 6. Eli likes to play volleyball. (no article needed) 7. I bought an umbrella to go out in the rain. 8. My daughter is learning to play the violin at her school. 9. Please give me the cake that is on the counter. 10. I lived on Main Street when I first came to town. (no article needed) 11. Albany is the capital of New York State. (no article needed) 12. My husband's family speaks Polish. (no article needed) 13. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. 14. The ink in my pen is red. 15. Our neighbors have a cat and a dog. Uncountable nouns z z Some nouns in English are uncountable. In other words, they are not used with a or an and do not have plural forms. For example, the word information, as in the phrase I need some information. In order to refer to a particular number of an uncountable noun, especially one, you can join the noun to a word that is itself countable, or use a countable synonym instead. z z z z z z z z z music, art, love, happiness advice, information, news furniture, luggage rice, sugar, butter, water electricity, gas, power money, currency We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example: This news is very important. Your luggage looks heavy. z z z z z z z z z z We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say "an information" or "a music". But we can say a something of: a piece of news a bottle of water a grain of rice We can use some and any with uncountable nouns: I've got some money. Have you got any rice? We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns: I've got a little money. I haven't got much rice. Conditional sentences There are three types of the if-clauses. Type - condition I condition possible to fulfill II condition in theory possible to fulfill III condition not possible to fulfill (too late) Type if clause main clause I Simple Present will-future (or Modal + infinitive) II Simple Past would /might/could+ infinitive III Past Perfect would + have + past participle Examples (if-clause at the beginning) Type I if clause If I study, II If I studied, III main clause I will pass the exam. I would pass the exam. If I had studied, I would have passed the exam. Examples (if-clause at the end) Type main clause if-clause I I will pass the exam II I would pass the exam studied. III studied. I would have passed the exam if I had if I study. if I Exercise 1) If I (go) to Leipzig, I'll visit the zoo. 2) If it (rain), we'd be in the garden. 3) If you (wear) a lighter jacket, the car driver would have seen you earlier. 4) We (watch) TV tonight if Peter hadn't bought the theatre tickets. 5) She wouldn't have had (sign)two laptops if she the contract. 6) If I was/were a millionaire, I (live)in Beverly Hills. 7) You would save energy if you (switch off) the lights more often. 8) If we had read the book, we (understand) the film. 9) My sister could score better on the test if the teacher (explain) the grammar once more. 10) They (arrive) on time if they hadn't missed the train. Answers 1) If I go to Leipzig, I'll visit the zoo.2) If it didn't rain, we'd be in the garden.3) If you had worn a lighter jacket, the car driver would have seen you earlier.4) We would have watched TV tonight if Peter hadn't bought the theatre tickets.5) She wouldn't have had two laptops if she had not signed the contract.6) If I was/were a millionaire, I would live in Beverly Hills.7) You would save energy if you switched off the lights more often.8) If we had read the book, we would have understood the film.9) My sister could score better on the test if the teacher explained the grammar once more.10) They might have arrived on time if they hadn't missed the train. FUTURE FORMS FORM “Will” [will + verb] Examples: You will help him later. Will you help him later? You will not help him later FORM “Be Going To” [am/is/are + going to + verb] Examples: You are going to meet Jane tonight. Are you going to meet Jane tonight? You are not going to meet Jane tonight. USE 1 "Will" to Express a Voluntary Action "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. It is used to express a decision, intention, offer or promise made at the moment of speaking. Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something. Examples: I will send you the information when I get it. I will translate the email, so Mr. Smith can read it. Will you help me move this heavy table? USE 2 "Be going to" to Express a Plan “Be going to" expresses that something is a plan made before the moment of speaking. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. Examples: He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii. She is not going to spend her vacation in Hawaii. A: When are we going to meet each other tonight? B: We are going to meet at 6 PM. USE 3 "Will" or "Be Going to" to Express a Prediction Both "will" and "be going to" can express the idea of a general prediction about the future. Predictions are guesses about what might happen in the future. In "prediction" sentences, the subject usually has little control over the future and therefore USES 1-2 do not apply. In the following examples, there is no difference in meaning. Examples: The year 2222 will be a very interesting year. The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year. John Smith will be the next President. John Smith is going to be the next President. Use 4 Present Continuous We use the present continuous to express a future arangement (refers to near future) Example: We are going out with Jenny tonight. I m having my hair cut. No Future in Time Clauses Like all future forms, the Simple Future cannot be used in clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Simple Future, Simple Present is used. Examples: When you will arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Not Correct When you arrive tonight, we will go out for dinner. Correct ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: You will never help him. Will you ever help him? You are never going to meet Jane. Are you ever going to meet Jane? EXERCISE 1. Michael: Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats (win) the next election? Jane: I think the Republicans (win) the next election. John: No way! The Democrats (win) . 2. Susan: We (go) camping this weekend. Would you like to come along? Sam: That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. Susan: No problem. I (lend) you one. My family has tons of camping gear. Barbara: I (buy) a new car this weekend, but I'm a little worried because I don't really know much about cars. I'm afraid the salesman (try) to take advantage of me when he sees how little I know. Dave: I used to work for a mechanic in high school and I know a lot about cars. I (go) with you to make sure you are not cheated. Gina: Fred and I (visit) Santa Fe next summer. Have you ever been there? Margaret: My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) you my parents' phone number. When you get to Santa Fe, just call them and they (give) you a little tour of the town. They can show you some of the sights that most tourists never see. Pam: Can you see my future in the crystal ball? What (happen) next year? Fortune Teller: You (meet) a man from the East Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (marry) that mystery man. Pam: Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) a new job. ANSWERS Michael: Do you think the Republicans or the Democrats (win) will win the next election? Jane: I think the Republicans (win) will win the next election. John: No way! The Democrats (win) are going to win. 2. Susan: We (go) are going to go camping this weekend. Would you like to come along? Sam: That sounds great, but I don't have a sleeping bag. Susan: No problem. I (lend) will lend you one. My family has tons of camping gear. 3. Barbara: I (buy) am going to buy a new car this weekend, but I'm a little worried because I don't really know much about cars. I'm afraid the salesman (try) will try to take advantage of me when he sees how little I know. Dave: I used to work for a mechanic in high school and I know a lot about cars. I (go) will go with you to make sure you are not cheated. 4. Gina: Fred and I (visit) are going to visit Santa Fe next summer. Have you ever been there? Margaret: My family lives in Santa Fe! I (give) will give you my parents' phone number. When you get to Santa Fe, just call them and they (give) will give you a little tour of the town. They can show you some of the sights that most tourists never see. 5. Pam: Can you see my future in the crystal ball? What (happen) will happen next year? Fortune Teller: You (meet) are going to meet a man from the East Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (marry) will marry that mystery man. Pam: Forget the man! I want to know if I (get) will get a new job. PASSIVE VOICE USE OF PASSIVE • Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. • Example: My bike was stolen. • In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE • When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: • the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence • the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) • the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) Form of Passive • Simple Present • Active:Rita writes a letter. • Passive:A letter is written by Rita. • Simple Past • Active: Rita wrote a letter. • Passive: A letter was written by Rita. • Present Continuous • Active: Rita is writing a letter. • Passive: A letter is being writen by Rita. • Past Continuous • Active: Rita was writing a letter. • Passive: A letter was being written by Rita. • Present Perfect • Active: Rita has written a letter. • Passive: A letter has been written by Rita. • Past Perfect (Pluperfect) • Active: Rita had written a letter. • Passive:A letter had been written by Rita. • Future • Active: Rita will write a letter. • Passive: A letter wil be written by Rita. Passive Sentences with Two Objects • Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Verb Object 1 • Active: Rita wrote a letter to • Passive: A letter was written to me • Passive: I was written a letter Object2 me. by Rita. by Rita. Exercise • • • • • • • • • You do not write the letter. A thief stole my car. They didn't let him go. I have opened the present. They have not read the book. I was repairing their bikes. They were not eating dinner. I am writing a poem. We are not playing football. Passive with 2 objects • • • • • • • Rachel will give you some advice. I sent him a letter . The police officer showed us the way. We have asked him a favour. The waiter has not brought us the coffee. They did not offer her a seat. They have written her a postcard. • She told me a lie. PASSIVE VOICE USE OF PASSIVE • Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action. • Example: My bike was stolen. • In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it. HOW TO REWRITE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE • When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following: • the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence • the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) • the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped) Subject doing a. verb The professor teaches object receiving a. the students. Subject receiving a. passive v. doing a. The students are taught by the professor Form of Passive The passive voice is formed by using the appropriate form of the verb to be (for example, is) and a past participle (for example, formed). • Simple Present • Active: Rita writes a letter. • Passive: A letter is written by Rita. • Simple Past • Active: Rita wrote a letter. • Passive: A letter was written by Rita. • Present Continuous • Active: Rita is writing a letter. • Passive: A letter is being written by Rita. • Past Continuous • Active: Rita was writing a letter. • Passive: A letter was being written by Rita. • Present Perfect • Active: Rita has written a letter. • Passive: A letter has been written by Rita. • Past Perfect (Pluperfect) • Active: Rita had written a letter. • Passive:A letter had been written by Rita. • • • • • • • Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter. Passive:A letter would be written by Rita. Conditional II Active:Rita would have written a letter. Passive: A letter would have been written by Rita. Future • Active: Rita will write a letter. • Passive: A letter will be written by Rita. Passive Sentences with Two Objects • Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Subject Verb Object 1 • Active: Rita wrote a letter • Passive: A letter was written to me • Passive: I was written a letter Object2 to me. by Rita. by Rita. Exercise • • • • • • • • • You do not write the letter. A thief stole my car. They didn't let him go. I have opened the present. They have not read the book. I was repairing their bikes. They were not eating dinner. I am writing a poem. We are not playing football. Passive with 2 objects • • • • • • • Rachel will give you some advice. I sent him a letter . The police officer showed us the way. We have asked him a favour. The waiter has not brought us the coffee. They did not offer her a seat. They have written her a postcard. • She told me a lie. PAST PERFECT TENSE The past perfect refers to a time earlier than a past time. It is used to make it clear that one event happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense makes it clear which one happened first. John had gone out when I arrived in the office. I had saved my document before the computer crashed. He was very tired because he hadn't slept well. USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. Examples: I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet. USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past We use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past. Examples: We had had that car for ten years before it broke down. By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years. ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: You had previously studied English before you moved to New York. Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York? Form Positive: “had”+ past participle of the main verb (or –ed) She had written the letter before I came home. Negative : “had” + not + participle of the main verb (or –ed) She had not written the letter before I came home. Question: “had” + subject+ past participle of the main verb (or –ed) Had she written the book before I came home ? Exercise Present or Past perfect? 1. I never get up from the table before others ---(finish). 2. I ---- (see) many pictures of the pyramids before I went to Egypt last summer. Pictures of the monuments are very misleading. The pyramids are actually quite small. 3. Sarah ---- (climb) Mount Everest, ---- (sail) around the world, and ---- (go) on safari in Kenya. She is such an adventurous person. 4. Susan ---- (climb) Mount Everest, ---- (sail) around the world, and ---- (go) on safari in Kenya by the time she was twenty-five. She ---- (experience) more by that age than most people do in their entire lives. 5. Before my trip lo Paris two years ago, I ---- (never be) to France. 6. When we finally stopped him, the squirrel ---- (already eat) five cookies. 1.After Fred (to spend) his holiday in Italy he (to want) to learn Italian. 2) Jill (to phone) Dad at work before she (to leave) for her trip. 3) Susan (to turn on) the radio after she (to wash) the dishes. 4) When she (to arrive) the match already (to start). 5) After the man (to come) home he (to feed) the cat. 6) Before he (to sing) a song he (to play) the guitar. 7) She (to watch) a video after the children (to go) to bed. 8) After Eric (to make) breakfast he (to phone) his friend. 9) I (to be) very tired because I (to study) too much. 10) They (to ride) their bikes before they (to meet) their friends. 1.After Fred had spent his holiday in Italy he wanted to learn Italian.2) Jill had phoned Dad at work before she left for her trip.3) Susan turned on the radio after she had washed the dishes.4) When she arrived the match had already started.5) After the man had come home he fed the cat.6) Before he sang a song he had played the guitar.7) She watched a video after the children had gone to bed.8) After Eric had made breakfast he phoned his friend.9) I was very tired because I had studied too much.10) They had ridden their bikes before they met their friends. 1. have finished 2 had seen 3. has climbed, has sailed, has gone 4. had climbed, had sailed, had gone, had experienced 5. had never been 6. had already eaten PAST PROGRESSIVE Use of Past Progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past Example: He was playing football. two actions happening at the same time (in the past) Example: While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes. action going on at a certain time in the past Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang. Signal Words of Past Progressive when, while, as long as FORM Positive Negative Question I / he / she / it was speaking. You/we/they/ were speaking. I/ he/she /it was not speaking. You/we/they were not speaking Was I speaking? Were you/we/they speaking? Exceptions in Spelling final e is dropped (but: ee is not changed)come – coming (but: agree – agreeing) after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled sit – sitting L as final consonant after a vowel is doubled (in British English) travel – travelling final ie becomes y lie – lying Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ing Write down the ing form of the following words.Mind the exceptions in spelling. live → run → give → swim → lie → sit → travel → Was or Were Boris_____ learning English. They____ swimming in the lake. Your father ____repairing the car. I ___reading a magazine. You___ packing your bag. My friends ___watching the match on TV. It___ raining. The dog___ barking. The children ____brushing their teeth. Anne and Maureen____singing a song Positive Sentences Yesterday at 3 pm the following people were in the middle of an action. Write positive sentences in past progressive. you / play / cards Alice / walk / around the lake Caron / listen / to the radio we / read / a book about Australia Negative Sentences Somebody believes that yesterday at 3 pm the following people were in the middle of an action. That cannot be, however, as yesterday at 3 pm these people were not doing those things. Write negative sentences in past progressive. Sarah and Luke / not / work Mister Miller / not / teach / chemistry Barry / not / drive / a lorry Mandy / not / have / lunch Questions You want to know whether the following people were in the middle of an action at a certain time in the past. Write questions in past progressive. Rachel / feed / the cat the children / paint / a picture Clark / repair / his computer Hazel / swim / in the pool Put the verbs into the correct form (past progressive). When I phoned my friends, they (play) monopoly. Yesterday at six I (prepare) dinner. The kids (play) in the garden when it suddenly began to rain. I (practise) the guitar when he came home. We (not / cycle) all day. While Aaron (work) in his room, his friends (swim) in the pool. I tried to tell them the truth but they (listen / not) . What (you / do) yesterday? Most of the time we (sit) in the park. PAST SIMPLE The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never, several times. It can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of another action. Form of Simple Past Positive I/you/he/we/you/they spoke. Negative I/you/he/we/you/they did not speak. Question Did I/you/he/we/you/they speak. For irregular verbs, use the past form (see list of irregular verbs, 2nd column). For regular verbs, just add “ed” Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’ after a final e only add d love – loved final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or l as final consonant after a vowel is doubled admit – admitted, travel – travelled final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried Use of Simple Past action in the past taking place once, never or several times Example: He visited his parents every weekend. actions in the past taking place one after the other Example: He came in, took off his coat and sat down. action in the past taking place in the middle of another action Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang. if sentences type II (If I talked, …) Example: If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you. Signal Words of Simple Past yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday If-Satz Typ II (If I talked, …) Was or Were? Complete the sentences with was or were. I___ happy. You____angry. She____in London last week. He ___on holiday. It___ cold. We___at school. You___ at the cinema. They___ at home. The cat___ on the roof. The children___ in the garden Write positive sentences in simple past he / the question / answer you / a question / ask the dog / bark they / us / call we / a mountain / climb Exercise on negative sentences Rewrite the sentences in the negative. They collected postcards. → You jumped high. → Albert played squash. → The teacher tested our English. → Fiona visited her grandma. → Exercise on questions Write questions in simple past. Anna / the window / open she / home / walk you / in the garden / work you / a song / sing she / on a chair / sit you / the castle / visit Jenny / the door / lock she / happy / be Greg / the ball / kick the car / at the corner / stop Put the verbs into the correct tense (Simple Past or Past Progressive). While Tom (read)____ , Amely (watch)____ a documentary on TV. Marvin (come)___ home, (switch)____ on the computer and (check)______ his emails. We wait)___for Jane, when suddenly Louis (come)___ around the corner. I (cycle)_____ through the park, when (hear)___I a strange noise. He (pass)____ her a message when the teacher (not look)____ . Two days ago, a murder (happen)___ in Market Street at about seven pm. Yesterday, Sherlock Holmes (arrive)____ at the crime scene to investigate. He (ask)____ one of the tenants in the house. »What (do/you)___ yesterday at seven?« »I (watch)___ a football match on TV.« » (Be)____ you alone?« »Yes, I( be)____ .« » (hear /you/____ anything suspicious?« »Yes, about seven o'clock, two people (argue)_____ in the hallway. But the football match (be)_____ so interesting. So I just (turn)____ up the telly and then (hear not) anything anymore.« Put the verbs into the correct tense (simple past or past progressive) When I (do) the washing-up, I (braek) a plate. While Tom (play) the piano, his mother (do) the washing-up. He (drinki) some juice and then he (eat) a few chips. I (have) dinner when I suddenly (hear) a loud bang. When my father (work) in the garden, an old friend (pass) by to see him. She (go) to school, (take) out her textbook and (begin)to learn. When it (start) to rain, our dog (want) to come inside. When Jane (do) a language course in Ireland, she (visit) Blarney Castle. When I (be) on my way home, I (see) an accident. I (not understand) what they (talk) about. Present Perfect Tense USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc. Examples: I have seen that movie twenty times. I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in California. People have traveled to the Moon. USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (NonContinuous Verbs) With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect. Examples: I have had a cold for two weeks. She has been in England for six months. Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl. Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT NonContinuous Verbs. ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: You have only seen that movie one time. Have you only seen that movie one time? Exercise I (not / work) today. We (buy) a new lamp. We (not / plan) our holiday yet. Where (be / you) ? He (write) five letters. She (not / see) him for a long time. (be / you) at school? School (not / start) yet. (speak / he) to his boss? No, he (have / not) the time yet. PRESENT SIMPLE FORM VERB + s/es in third person Examples: You speak English. Do you speak English? You do not speak English? He/she /it speaks English. Does he/she/it speak English? He/she/it does not speak English USE 1 Repeated Actions Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do. Examples: I play tennis. The train leaves every morning at 8 AM. The train does not leave at 9 AM. She always forgets her purse. He never forgets his wallet. Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun. Does the Sun circle the Earth? USE 2 Facts or Generalizations The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things. Examples: Cats like milk. California is in America. California is not in the United Kingdom. Windows are made of glass. Windows are not made of wood. USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used with other scheduled events as well. Examples: • The train leaves tonight at 6 PM. • The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM. • When do we board the plane? • The party starts at 8 o'clock. • When does class begin tomorrow? ADVERB PLACEMENT The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: • You only speak English. • Do you only speak English? PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM • [am/is/are + present participle] Examples: • You are watching TV. • Are you watching TV? • You are not watching TV. USE 1 Now Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs (Most verbs are "Normal Verbs." These verbs are usually physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses.) to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now. (Normal Verbs to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.) • • • • • • • • • Examples: You are learning English now. You are not swimming now. Are you sleeping? I am sitting. Is he sitting or standing? They are reading their books. What are you doing? Why aren't you doing your homework? USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second. • Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in • • • • • • a restaurant.) I am studying to become a doctor. I am not studying to become a dentist. I am reading the book Tom Sawyer. I am not reading any books right now. Are you working on any special projects at work? Aren't you teaching at the university now? USE 3 Near Future Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future. Examples: • I am meeting some friends after work. • I am not going to the party tonight. • Is he visiting his parents next weekend? • Isn't he coming with us tonight? USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always" The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing." • Examples: • She is always coming to class late. • He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up. • I don't like them because they are always complaining. ADVERB PLACEMENT • • • The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc. Examples: You are still watching TV. Are you still watching TV? EXERCISES 1.Every Monday, Sally (drive) her kids to football practice. 2. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris. 3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep) . 4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) . 5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always) . 6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly. 7. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can find a good publisher when he is finished. 8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight? Denise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) to a movie tonight with some friends. 9. The business cards (be, normally ) printed by a company in New York. Their prices (be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good. 10. This delicious chocolate (be) made by a small chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland. A Trekking Journal November 12, 2011 Today (be) the second day of my trek around Mount Annapurna. I am exhausted and my legs (shake) ; I just hope I am able to complete the trek. My feet (kill, really) me and my toes (bleed) , but I (want, still) to continue. Nepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to learn. Everything (be) so different, and I (try) to adapt to the new way of life here. I (learn) a little bit of the language to make communication easier; unfortunately, I (learn, not) foreign languages quickly. Although I (understand, not) much yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually) . I (travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds University in England. He (be) a nice guy, but impatient. He (walk, always) ahead of me and (complain) that I am too slow. I (do) my best to keep up with him, but he is younger and stronger than I am. Maybe, I am just feeling sorry for myself because I am getting old. Right now, Liam (sit) with the owner of the inn. They (discuss) the differences between life in England and life in Nepal. I (know, not) the real name of the owner, but everybody (call, just) him Tam. Tam (speak) English very well and he (try) to teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every time Tam (say) a new word, Liam (try) to repeat it. Unfortunately, Liam (seem, also) to have difficulty learning foreign languages. I just hope we don't get lost and have to ask for directions. Relative clauses What is a relative clause? z We can use relative clauses to join two English sentences, or to give more information about something. z I bought a new car. It is very fast. → I bought a new car that is very fast. z She lives in New York. She likes living in New York. → She lives in New York, which she likes. Defining and Non-defining z A defining relative clause tells which noun we are talking about: z I like the woman who lives next door. (If I don’t say ‘who lives next door’, then we don’t know which woman I mean) z A non-defining relative clause gives us extra information about something. We don’t need this information to understand the sentence. z I live in London, which has some fantastic parks. (Everybody knows where London is, ‘which has some fantastic parks’ is extra information) 1: The relative pronoun is the subject: z First, let’s consider when the relative pronoun is the subject of a defining relative clause. z We can use ‘who’, ‘which’ or ‘that’. We use ‘who’ for people and ‘which’ for things. We can use ‘that’ for people or things. z The relative clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. We can’t drop the relative pronoun. z For example (clause after the object of the sentence): z I’m looking for a secretary who / that can use a computer well. z More examples (clause after the subject of the sentence): z The people who / that live on the island are very friendly. z The man who / that phoned is my brother. z The camera which / that costs £100 is over there. 2: The relative pronoun is the object z Next, let’s talk about when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause. In this case we can drop the relative pronoun if we want to. Again, the clause can come after the subject or the object of the sentence. Here are some examples: z (clause after the object) z She loves the chocolate (which / that) I bought. z We went to the village (which / that) Lucy recommended. z (clause after the subject) z The bike (which / that) I loved was stolen. z The university (which / that) she likes is famous. Non-defining relative clauses z We don’t use ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses, so we need to use ‘which’ if the pronoun refers to a thing, and ‘who’ if it refers to a person. We can’t drop the relative pronoun in this kind of clause, even if the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. z (clause comes after the subject) z My boss, who is very nice, lives in Manchester. z My sister, who I live with, knows a lot about cars. z (clause comes after the object) z Yesterday I called our friend Julie, who lives in New York. z The photographer called to the Queen, who looked annoyed. Prepositions and relative clauses If the verb in the relative clause needs a preposition, we put it at the end of the clause: z For example: z listen to z The music is good. Julie listens to the music. → The music (which / that) Julie listens to is good. z work with z My brother met a woman. I used to work with the woman. → My brother met a woman (who / that) I used to work with. z go to z The country is very hot. He went to the country. → The country (which / that) he went to is very hot. z come from z I visited the city. John comes from the city. → I visited the city (that / which) John comes from. z apply for z The job is well paid. She applied for the job. → The job (which / that) she applied for is well paid. z Whose z ‘Whose’ is always the subject of the relative clause and can’t be left out. It replaces a possessive. It can be used for people and things. z The dog is over there. The dog’s / its owner lives next door. → The dog whose owner lives next door is over there. z The little girl is sad. The little girl’s / her doll was lost. → The little girl whose doll was lost is sad. z The woman is coming tonight. Her car is a BMW. → The woman whose car is a BMW is coming tonight. z The house belongs to me. Its roof is very old. → The house whose roof is old belongs to me. z Where / when / why z We can sometimes use these question words instead of relative pronouns and prepositions. z I live in a city. I study in the city. → I live in the city where I study. → I live in the city that / which I study in. → I live in the city in which I study. z The bar in Barcelona is still there. I met my wife in that bar. → The bar in Barcelona where I met my wife is still there. → The bar in Barcelona that / which I met my wife in is still there. → The bar in Barcelona in which I met my wife is still t z The summer was long and hot. I graduated from university in the summer. → The summer when I graduated from university was long and hot. → The summer that / which I graduated from university in was long and hot. → The summer in which I graduated was long and hot. Exercise: z Combine the sentences with relative clauses. (Decide whether to use commas or not.) z A monk is a man. The man has devoted his life to God. A monk z I have one black cat. His name is Blacky. I have z A herbivore is an animal. The animal feeds upon vegetation. A herbivore z Carol plays the piano brilliantly. She is only 9 years old. Carol z Sydney is the largest Australian city. It is not the capital of Australia. Sydney Combine the sentences using relative clauses z z z z Samuel Johnson was the son of a bookseller. Samuel Johnson was born in 1709. Samuel Johnson In 1728, he went to Oxford. He studied at Pembroke College in Oxford. In 1728, he went Johnson had to leave Oxford without a degree. He was too poor to pay the fees. Johnson In 1737, Johnson moved to London. There he wrote poetry, essays and biographies. In 1737, Johnson In 1746, Johnson started to write his dictionary. It took him nine years to complete. In 1746, Johnson started Study the situations and then decide whether the following relative clauses are defining or non-defining z defining – no commas non-defining – commas z I have three brothers. My brother who lives in Sidney came to see me last month. My brother, who lives in Sidney, came to see me last month. z I have one sister. My sister who is 25 years old spent her holiday in France. My sister, who is 25 years old, spent her holiday in France. z Bob's mum has lost her keys. Bob's mum who is a musician has lost her car keys. Bob's mum, who is a musician, has lost her car keys. REPORTED SPEECH If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech. Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to transform a statement, question or request. Statements When transforming statements, check whether you have to change: pronouns present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift) Type Example “ I speak English.” Direct speech reported speech He says that he speaks English. (no backshift) reported speech (backshift) He said that he spoke English. Questions When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: pronouns present tense verbs (3rd person singular) place and time expressions tenses (backshift) Type Example with interrogative direct speech“Why don’t you speak English?” reported speech He asked me why I didn’t speak English. without interrogative direct speech“Do you speak English? reported speech He asked me whether / if I spoke English Requests When transforming questions, check whether you have to change: pronouns place and time expressions Type Example direct speech “Carol, speak English.“ reported speech He told Carol to speak English Complete the sentences in reported speech. Note the change of pronouns and tenses. "What's the time?" he asked. → He wanted to know "When will we meet again?" she asked me. → She asked me "Are you crazy?" she asked him. → She asked him "Where did they live?" he asked. → He wanted to know "Will you be at the party?" he asked her. → He asked her "Can you meet me at the station?" she asked me. → She asked me "Who knows the answer?" the teacher asked. → The teacher wanted to know "Why don't you help me?" she asked him. → She wanted to know "Did you see that car?" he asked me. → He asked me "Have you tidied up your room?" the mother asked the twins. → The mother asked the twins Answers "What's the time?" he asked. → He wanted to know what the time was. "When will we meet again?" she asked me. → She asked me when we would meet again. "Are you crazy?" she asked him. → She asked him if he was crazy. "Where did they live?" he asked. → He wanted to know where they had lived. "Will you be at the party?" he asked her. → He asked her if she would be at the party. "Can you meet me at the station?" she asked me. → She asked me if I could meet her at the station. "Who knows the answer?" the teacher asked. → The teacher wanted to know who knew the answer. "Why don't you help me?" she asked him. → She wanted to know why he didn't help her. "Did you see that car?" he asked me. → He asked me if I had seen that car. "Have you tidied up your room?" the mother asked the twins. → The mother asked the twins if they had tidied up their room.