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Science Review for Graduation Exam 1.) Select appropriate laboratory glassware, balances, time measuring equipment, and optical instruments to conduct an experiment. • Graduated cylinders measure liquid volume. • 10 ml—volume of ink pen • 20 ml– volume of marble Beakers • Beakers are used to mix, measure, or heat liquids, but they are not designed for accurate measurements. Erlenmeyer Flask • An Erlenmeyer flask is used for boiling liquids and helps prevent liquids from splashing or giving off nauseous fumes. Test Tubes • Test tubes are used to mix, measure, or heat liquids. Test tubes are not usually marked with measurements, so they are only used to make approximate measurements. Microscope slide • Used to see microscopic unicellular organisms. pipette • A pipette is a laboratory instrument used to transport a measured volume of liquid. Petri dish • Used to grow bacteria on a nutrient agar. Balance • A triple-beam balance is used to determine the mass of heavier materials to the nearest gram. stopwatch • A stopwatch is a handheld timepiece designed to measure the amount of time elapsed from a particular time when activated to when the piece is deactivated. microscope • A microscope enables us to see very small objects or organisms too small to see with the unaided eye. Compound microscope • The compound microscope uses multiple lenses to further increase magnification. Electron microscope • An electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to illuminate a specimen and create an enlarged image. Electron microscopes have much greater resolving power than light microscopes and can obtain much higher magnifications. Magnifying glass • Simple Magnification • A magnifying glass is a bi-convex lens. It is convex on both sides, meaning that the glass is curved outward to form a dome. Things look bigger looking through convex lenses. Using appropriate SI units for measuring length, volume, and mass Scientific Measurement • SI System of Measurement —a measurement of matter based on units of ten. • Mass—amount of matter in an object • Volume—amount of space an object occupies • Length– distance from one point to another. • The basic unit of length is the meter. • The basic unit of liquid volume is the liter. • A meniscus is the curve you see at the surface of a liquid. Liquids are always measured from the bottom of the meniscus. • kilogram—basic unit of mass in the metric system • Describing the steps of the scientific method • • • • • • • • Make an observation. Ask questions. Form the hypothesis. Set up an experiment to test the hypothesis. Collect and record the data. Analyze the data. Draw a conclusion. Make a prediction. Comparing controls, dependent variables, and independent variables • A control group is used so that results can be compared. • A variable is the part of the experiment is changed. • The dependent variable always depends on the independent variable. • • Identifying safe laboratory procedures when handling chemicals and using Bunsen burners and laboratory glassware • Never smell any chemical directly from its container. Always use your hand to waft some of the odors from the top of the container toward your nose, and only when instructed to do so. • Keep all lids closed when chemicals are not in use. • Dispose of all chemicals as instructed by your teacher. Chemical Safety Bunsen burners • Procedure Bunsen burner safety guidelines: • PLACE the Bunsen burner away from any overhead shelving, equipment or light fixtures. • REMOVE all papers, notebooks, combustible materials and excess chemicals from the area. • TIE-BACK any long hair, dangling jewelry, or loose clothing. • INSPECT hose for cracks, holes, pinched points, or any other defect and ensure that the hose fits securely on the gas valve and the Bunsen burner. • REPLACE all hoses found to have a defect before using. • NOTIFY others in the laboratory that the burner will be in use. • UTILIZE a sparker / lighter with extended nozzle to ignite the Bunsen burner. Never use a match to ignite burner. • HAVE the sparker / lighter available before turning on gas. • ADJUST the flame by turning the collar to regulate air flow and produce an appropriate flame for the experiment (typically a medium blue flame). • DO NOT leave open flames unattended and never leave laboratory while burner is on. • SHUT-OFF gas when its use is complete. • ALLOW the burner to cool before handling. ENSURE that the main gas valve is off before leaving the laboratory. Lab Glassware • When heating or rinsing a container such as a test tube, point it away from yourself and others. • Inform the teacher immediately of any mishap, such as fire, bodily injuries or burns, electrical shock, glassware breakage, and chemical or other spills. Describe cell processes necessary for achieving homeostasis, including active and passive transport, osmosis, diffusion, exocytosis, and endocytosis. Endocytosis (active) Exocytosis (active) homeostasis • The ability of an organism or cell to maintain internal balance and stability by adjusting its physiological processes. Active Transport • Movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins. Passive transport • The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane. osmosis • Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Diffusion • The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area. Exocytosis • The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the cell membrane. Endocytosis • The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the cell membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle. • • Comparing the reaction of plant and animal cells in isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions • A cell in a sugar solution will be smaller because water left the cell by osmosis. • A paramecium achieves homeostasis when water enters the cell by osmosis and contractile vacuoles eliminate excess water by active transport. • In passive transport, There is a concentration gradient across a semi-permeable membrane where molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. • Osmosis movement of water • Diffusion movement of substance other than water. • Explaining how surface area, cell size, temperature, light, and pH affect cellular activities Temperature, concentration, Surface area • In both chemical and physical reactions, increasing temperature or concentration increases the rate of the reaction. • Also, increasing the surface area between reactants gives more opportunity for interaction, and this speeds up reaction rate. • Identifying functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in cellular activities carbohydrates • WHAT'S IT USED FOR? • A carbohydrate is called an organic compound because it contains carbon. Sugars provide living things with energy and act as substances used for structure. Some examples of structures might be the shell of a crab or the stem of a plant. Lipids • Lipids are another type of organic molecule (contains carbon). When you think of fats, you should know that they are lipids. Lipids are also used to make steroids and waxes. So if you pick out some ear wax and smell it, that's a lipid, too! GET THE WAX OUT OF YOUR EARS • Waxes are used to coat and protect things in nature. Bees make wax. Your ears make wax. Plant leaves even have wax on the outside of their leaves. It can be used for structures such as the bees' honeycombs. Waxes can also be used for protection. Plants use wax to stop evaporation of water from their leaves. Proteins • Proteins are made of amino acids. Even though a protein can be very complex, it is basically a long chain of amino acids, all twisted around like a knot. • Proteins are very important molecules in our cells. They are involved in virtually all cell functions. Each protein within the body has a specific function. Some proteins are involved in structural support, while others are involved in bodily movement, or in defense against germs. Proteins vary in structure as well as function. They are constructed from a set of 20 amino acids and have distinct three-dimensional shapes. Nucleic Acids • THE NUCLEIC ACIDS • The nucleic acids are the building blocks of living organisms. You may have heard of DNA described the same way. Guess what? DNA is just one type of nucleic acid. Some other types are RNA, mRNA, and tRNA. All of these "NA's" work together to help cells replicate and build proteins. NA? Hold on. Might that stand for nucleic acid? It might. • THE BASICS • We already told you about the biggie nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, mRNA, tRNA). They are actually made up chains of base pairs stretching from only a few to millions. When those pairs combine in super long chains (DNA), they make a shape called a double helix. The double helix shape is like a twisty ladder. The base pairs are the rungs. • • Applying the concept of fluid pressure to biological systems Examples: blood pressure, turgor pressure (water pressure against cell walls of plants), bends, strokes Blood pressure • What is blood pressure? Blood pressure is the pressure of the blood against the walls of the arteries. • Blood pressure results from two forces. One is created by the heart as it pumps blood into the arteries and through the circulatory system. The other is the force of the arteries as they resist the blood flow. Turgor pressure • turgor pressure or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall in plant cells, determined by the water content of the vacuole, resulting from osmotic pressure. The Bends • Nitrogen seeps into the bloodstream. It blocks blood flow. Strokes • A stroke is an interruption of the blood supply to any part of the brain. A stroke is sometimes called a "brain attack." • 3.) Identify reactants and products associated with photosynthesis and cellular respiration and the purposes of these two processes. •Photosynthesis (CO2-O2 cycle) 6H2O + 6CO2 -----> C6H12O6+ 6O2 Water + carbon dioxide = glucose +oxygen (reactants) (products) Cellular Respiration • Relationship between photosynthesis and respiration: • CO2 O2 cycle • They are the reverse of each other!! Learn one and you know the other!!! • Photosynthesis is affected by light, water, and temperature. • The main purpose of photosynthesis is to use light energy from the sun, water, and carbon dioxide to make food. • The primary purpose of cellular respiration is to use chemical energy from glucose molecules. 4.) Describe similarities and differences of cell organelles, using diagrams and tables. • Nucleus—control center of the cell; DNA stored here • Mitochondria—”powerhouse” of the cell – Where ATP is produced – Conducts respiration – More in muscles because need more energy • Ribosomes—synthesizes proteins Ribosomes are the small dots. • Golgi Apparatus– packages proteins • Endoplasmic reticulum —transport system of cell – Smooth (no ribosomes) – Rough (ribosomes attached to it) • Nucleolus—produces ribosomes Cell membrane • The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane) is a semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells. vacuole • Vacuoles are found in the cytoplasm of most plant cells and some animal cells. Vacuoles are membrane-bound compartments within some eukaryotic cells that can serve a variety of secretory, excretory, and storage functions. Organelles found ONLY in plant cells • Central vacuole • Chloroplasts • Cell wall Cell wall • A cell wall is a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism. chlorophlast • Conducts photosynthesis • Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts absorb light and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide to produce sugars, the raw material for energy Central vacuole • Found only in plant cells. • Identifying scientists who contributed to the cell theory Examples: Hooke, Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow, van Leeuwenhoek Schleiden (plants) Schwann (animals) Robert Hooke (cork)-named “cells” Anton van Leeuwenhoek given credit for viewing the first LIVING cells under a microscope Virchow helped develop the cell theory • Distinguishing between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells • Prokayote—has no true nucleus or membrane bound organelles • Eukaryote—has a true nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Identifying various technologies used to observe cells Examples: light microscope, scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope • Light microscope • The light microscope, so called because it employs visible light to detect small objects, is probably the most well-known and well-used research tool in biology. Scanning electron microscope • The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that creates various images by focusing a high energy beam of electrons onto the surface of a sample and detecting signals from the interaction of the incident electrons with the sample's surface. Transmission electron microscope • Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through an ultra thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes through it. An image is formed from the electrons transmitted through the specimen, magnified and focused by an objective lens and appears on an imaging screen, a fluorescent screen in most TEMs, plus a monitor, or on a layer of photographic film, or to be detected by a sensor such as a CCD camera. 9.) Differentiate between the previous five-kingdom and current six-kingdom classification systems. • Sequencing taxa from most inclusive to least inclusive in the classification of living things Taxonomy Hierarchy • • • • • • • Kingdom(most inclusive) Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (least inclusive) • • • • • • • King Phillip Came Over For Good Spaghetti King Phillip Crapped On Forest Gump’s Shirt Classification Systems 5 Kingdom System • • • • • Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Monera (Pro) Protista (Euk) Fungi (Euk) Plantae (Euk) Animalia (Euk) 6 Kingdom System Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Kingdom Archabacteria (Pro) Eubacteria (Pro) Protista (Euk) Fungi (Euk) Plantae (Euk) Animalia (Euk) Monera in the 5-kingdom system is divided into Eubacteria and Archaebacteria in the 6-kingdom system Archaebacteria – Cell membranes have lipids (this is not found in any other organism) – No peptidoglycan in their cell walls – Prokaryotic – Unicellular – Unique ribosomal RNA (used to differentiate between Archaebacteria and Eubacteria – Commonly found in harsh environments – Commonly found in anaerobic environments • Identifying organisms using a dichotomous key (two choices) • Writing scientific names accurately by using binomial nomenclature (Genus species)-Homo sapien Binomial nomenclature • Uses the Genus and species to give the scientific name of an organism. • Genus is capitalized and species is lowercase • Both should be either written in italics or underlined. • Written in Latin • Example: Panthera leo • Carolus Linnaeus— binomial nomenclature 5.) Identify cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems as levels of organization in the biosphere. Cells—tissues—organs—organ systems—organism • Cells—smallest unit of life • Tissues—group of cells that work together for a common function • Organs– group of tissues that work together for a common function • Organ systems —group of organs that work together for a common function • Tendon is a tissue • species– organisms • Population—all the species in an area • Community—all the populations in an area (different populations/organisms) • Ecosystem—all the biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) parts of an environment. » organism » populations » communities » ecosystem Least complex --same species Most complex Community or Ecosystem? • All parts of area—abiotic (water) included is an ecosystem. • If only asking about “living” organisms in an area, then the answer is community. Organismpopulationcommunityecosystem Least complex Same species Most Complex (abiotic And biotic) • Recognizing that cells differentiate to perform specific functions Examples: ciliated cells to produce movement, nerve cells to conduct electrical charges cilia Cilia 6.) Describe the roles of mitotic and meiotic divisions during reproduction, growth, and repair of cells. • Mitosis---2n2n • Meiosis---2n n Meiosis and variation • Meiosis leads to variation in a species. Meiosis and reproduction • Meiosis produces haploid cell used in reproduction. Mitosis in cell repair • During respiration, mitosis helps replace cells that are destroyed or damaged. • Mitosis in growth • Meiosis and mitosis are reproductive processes. • Crossing-over occurs in Prophase I of meiosis. • Meiosis is a way to create diversity. • Mitosis is NOT. • Meiosis— • Oogenesis—production of eggs • Spermatogenesis—production of sperm • Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Meiosis • Spermatogenesis—production of sperm • Oogenesis– production of eggs • Sexual reproduction • If homolog or homologous is mentioned, it is Meiosis I Meiosis I (four phases) • Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by one-half. • four phases: a. prophase I b. metaphase I c. anaphase I d. telophase I Crossing over occurs in Prophase I Meiosis I : the reduction division Spindle fibers Nucleus Nuclear envelope Prophase I (early) (diploid) Prophase I (late) (diploid) Metaphase I (diploid) Anaphase I (diploid) Telophase I (diploid) Meiosis II : the equational division Prophase II (haploid) Metaphase II (haploid) Anaphase II (haploid) Telophase II (haploid) Four nonidentical haploid daughter cells Results of meiosis Gametes Four haploid cells One copy of each chromosome One allele of each gene Different combinations of alleles for different genes along the chromosome Spermatogenesis • Occurs in the testes • Production of sperm Spermatogenesis n=23 human sex cell sperm n=23 n=23 2n=46 haploid (n) n=23 diploid (2n) n=23 n=23 meiosis I meiosis II Oogenesis • Occurs in the ovaries • Production of the egg Oogenesis First polar body may divide (haploid) a a X a X a Meiosis I A Oogonium (diploid) X X Mitosis X Primary oocyte (diploid) Polar bodies die Meiosis II (if fertilization occurs) A X A X Secondary oocyte (haploid) Ovum (egg) A X Second polar body (haploid) Mature egg • Comparing sexual and asexual reproduction Asexual Reproduction • Asexual reproduction is the ability of an organism to reproduce without the need of the production of eggs and sperm. – Takes place in the lower forms of animals • Phylums: – Porifera --sponges – Coelenterara (Cnidarians)--jellyfish – Platyhelminthes—planaria, tapeworms • All these can reproduce asexually by cell division, budding, regeneration, or fission. • Prokaryotes—usually reproduce asexually • Eukaryotes—asexually, sexually, or both depends on the organism Asexual Reproduction • • • • • ONLY ONE ORGANISM IS NEEDED!! One parent Copies of all genes to each offspring Actually a clone—genetically identical Prokaryotes—binary fission Asexual reproduction • Simplest method of reproduction – Some ways: • Fission • Fragmentation • budding Binary fission • Parent separates into two or more individuals of approximately equal size • Example: amoeba Fragmentation • Mulitcellular eukaryotes • The body breaks into several pieces • The fragments develop into complete adults when missing parts are regrown. • Example: sea star Budding • New individuals split off form existing ones. • Can break off or remain attached. • Examples: hydra • In a stable environment, asexual reproduction allows organisms to produce many offspring in a short period of time. – Not necessary to use energy to produce gametes or find a mate • Comparing sperm and egg formation in terms of ploidy Example: ploidy-haploid, diploid 7.) Apply Mendel's law to determine phenotypic and genotypic probabilities of offspring. • Defining important genetic terms, including dihybrid cross, monohybrid cross, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant trait, recessive trait, incomplete dominance, codominance, and allele Monohybrid cross Dihybrid cross • Click on the words below to see an animation Punnett Squares • Practice LOTS of Punnett Squares!! • See your teacher!! • The set of alleles that an individual has is called its genotype. • The physical appearance of a trait is called a phenotype. • A gene can be dominant or recessive. • To express a recessive trait, an individual must have two recessive allelles. • If the dominant allele is present, it will be expressed. • If an individual receives two like alleles for a characteristic, the individual is homozygous. (AA, aa) • If an individual receives two different alleles for a characteristic, the individual is heterozygous. (Aa) Incomplete dominance In Caucasians, the child of a straight-haired parent and a curly-haired parent will have wavy hair. Straight and curly hair are homozygous dominant traits. Wavy hair is heterozygous and is intermediate between straight and curly hair. Codominance • Both traits are displayed. • Example: cattle– A cross between a homozygous red horse (cow) and a homozygous white horse (cow) results in heterozygous offspring with both red and white hairs in about the same number. – Called a roan. Some traits are caused by mutations • Mutations are changes in genetic material. – Harmful effects produced by inherited mutations are called genetic disorders. Interpreting inheritance patterns shown in graphs and charts • Pedigrees are particularly helpful if the trait is a genetic disorder and the family members want to know if they are carriers. • Carriers are individuals who are heterozygous for an inherited disorder but do not show symptoms of the disorder. – They can pass the allele to their offspring. Pedigree • • Calculating genotypic and phenotypic percentages and ratios using a Punnett square. T = Tall (dominant) t = Short (recessive) Genotypes: tt & tt Phenotypes:short tt = 100% Short = 100% Genotypes: Tt & tt Phenotypes: Tall & short Tt = 50% tt = 50% Tall = 50% Short = 50% Genotypes: TT & Tt Phenotypes: tall TT = 50% Tt = 50% Tall = 100% Genotypes: TT, Tt, tt Phenotypes: Tall & short TT = 50% Tt = 25% tt = 25% This Punnett Square is wrong. Tall = 75% Short = 25% WHY?? 8.) Identify the structure and function of DNA, RNA, and protein. • I. Structure of DNA A. Each DNA strand consists of many nucleotide monomers linked by covalent bonds B. Each nucleotide has three parts: 1. a phosphate group 2. a nitrogen base 3. a sugar (deoxyribose) IV. Structure of RNA A. A nucleic acid consisting of one strand of nucleotides B. Contains the bases A, C, G, and U C. Contains the sugar ribose • • • • • Amino acids make up proteins Proteins can function as enzymes Production of protein Patterns of base pairingDNA & RNA DNA makes up genes and chromosomes • Proteins serve as enzymatic catalysts. • RNA transports amino acids. Base Pairing • • • • DNA Replication Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine(G) In RNA– Uracil (U) pairs with (A)—There is NO THYMINE IN RNA!! • DNA replication preserves the genetic code from one generation to the next. • Explaining relationships among DNA, genes, and chromosomes Chromosomes • The DNA and the proteins associated with the DNA coil into a structure called a chromosome as a eukaryotic cell prepares to divide. DNA in Eukaryotic Cells A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein or RNA molecule. Genes play an important role in determining how a person’s body develops and functions. • Each chromosome contains thousands of genes that play important roles in determining how a person’s body develops and functions. • Relating genetic disorders and disease to patterns of genetic inheritance • Examples: hemophilia, sickle cell anemia, Down's syndrome, Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis, color blindness, phenylketonuria (PKU) • Sickle Cell Anemia Recessive Symptom: Poor blood circulation Defect: Abnormal hemoglobin molecules Frequency in human births: 1 in 500 African Americans Tay-Sachs disease • recessive • Symptom: deterioration of central nervous system in infancy; affected individuals die in early childhood • Defect: defective form of a brain enzyme • Frequency in human births: 1 in 3,500 (Jews) Cystic Fibrosis • recessive • Symptom: mucus clogs many organs, including the lungs, liver, and pancreas; affected individuals usually do not survive to adulthood • Defect: defective chloride-ion transport protein • Frequency in human births: 1 in 2.500 (whites) Hemophilia A • Sex-linked recessive • Symptom: failure of blood to clot • Defect: defective form of a blood-clotting factor • Frequency in human births: 1 in 10,000 (white males) Huntington’s disease • dominant • Symptom: gradual deterioration of brain tissue in middle age; shortened life expectancy • Defect: inhibitor of brain-cell metabolism is made • Frequency in human births: 1 in 10,000 • Listing significant contributions of biotechnology to society, including agricultural and medical practices Examples: DNA fingerprinting, insulin, growth hormone • So what is biotechnology and genetic engineering? There are three major developments that act as the signature of biotech, with many more surprises coming down the road: Biotechnology in Agriculture • Modification of plants to change their response to the environment, disease or pesticides. For example, tomatoes can gain fungal resistance by adding chitinases to their genome. A chitinase breaks down chitin, which forms the cell wall of a fungus cell. The pesticide Roundup kills all plants, but crop plants can be modified by adding genes that leave the plants immune to Roundup. Biotechnology in Medicine • Bacterial production of substances like human interferon, human insulin and human growth hormone. That is, simple bacteria like E. coli are manipulated to produce these chemicals so that they are easily harvested in vast quantities for use in medicine. Bacteria have also been modified to produce all sorts of other chemicals and enzymes. • Relating normal patterns of genetic inheritance to genetic variation Example: crossing-over • • Gel electrophoresis Crossing over (genetic recombination) Variation • Caused by – Crossing over – Random fertilization – Independent assortment Relating ways chance, mutagens, and genetic engineering increase diversity Examples: insertion, deletion, translocation, inversion, recombinant DNA Deletion • A piece of chromosome breaks off completely. • The new cell will lack a certain set of genes. • Many times is fatal. duplication • A chromosome fragment attaches to its homologous chromosome, which will then carry two copies of a certain set of genes. inversion • Chromosome piece reattaches to the original chromosome but in a reverse orientation. translocation • If the piece reattaches to a nonhomologous chromosome.