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MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM AD 1500: HIS4C02 NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES IV SEMESTER COMPLEMENTARY COURSE OF BA ENGLISH/POLITICAL SCIENCE (2014 Admission onwards) UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 954 School of Distance Education CALICUT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION STUDY MATERIAL IV SEMESTER COMPLEMENTARY OF BA ENGLISH/POLITICAL SCIENCE MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM AD 1500: HIS4C02 NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES Prepared by: Dr.N.PADMANABHAN Associate Professor&Head P.G.Department of History C.A.S.College, Madayi P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358 Dt.Kannur-Kerala Scrutinised by Ashraf koyilothan Kandiyil Chairman, BOS- History (UG) Settings & Lay out: SDE @ Reserved Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 1 School of Distance Education MODULE CONTENTS PAGE I POST WAR DEVELOPMENTS 3 II CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA 13 III CHANGING WORLD 25 Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 2 School of Distance Education MODULE-I POST WAR DEVELOPMENTS The Super Powers-Cold War After the Second World War, the USA and USSR became two Super Powers. One nation tried to reduce the power of other. Indirectly the competition between the Super Powers led to the Cold War. Then America took the leadership of all the Capitalist Countries. Soviet Russia took the leadership of all the Communist Countries. As a result of which both stood as rivals to each other. Cold War: The Cold War was a period of economic, political and military tension between the United States and Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991. Following the end of the Second World War, complications arose centring on the shifting of international power. The Soviet Union wanted to acquire additional territory while the United States attempted to limit the gains desired by the Soviets. This battle of ideologies resulted in increased national security, diplomatic tension and proxy wars between the two powerful nations. The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the Western World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The west was led by the United States and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two countries became known as superpowers. Although the two superpowers never officially declared war on each other, they fought indirectly in proxy wars, the arms race, and the space race. In the graphic language of Hartman, “Cold War is a state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen it and weaken the other by falling short by actual war”. In fact, Cold War is a kind of verbal war which is fought through newspapers, magazines, radio and other propaganda methods. It is a propaganda to which a great power resorts against the other power. It is a sort of diplomatic war. The Cold War began not too long after World War II ended in 1945. Although, the Soviet Union was an important member of the Allied Powers, there was great distrust between the Soviet Union and the rest of the Allies. The Allies were concerned with the brutal leadership of Joseph Stalin as well as the spread of communism. The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Origin of Cold War: There is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the origin of the Cold War In 1941 when Hitler invaded Russia, Roosevelt the President of USA sent armaments to Russia. It is only because the relationship between Roosevelt and Stalin was very good. But after the Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 3 School of Distance Education defeat of Germany, when Stalin wanted to implement Communist ideology in Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria and Rumania, at that time England and America suspected Stalin. Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England in his ‘Fulton Speech’ on 5 March 1945 said that Soviet Russia was covered by an Iron Curtain. It led Stalin to think deeply. As a result of which suspicion became wider between Soviet Russia and western countries and thus the Cold War took birth. Causes of the Cold War: Various causes are responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War. At first, the difference between Soviet Russia and USA led to the Cold War. The United States of America could not tolerate the Communist ideology of Soviet Russia. On the other hand, Russia could not accept the dominance of United States of America upon the other European Countries. Secondly, the Race of Armament between the two super powers served another cause for the Cold War. After the Second World War, Soviet Russia had increased its military strength which was a threat to the Western Countries. So America started to manufacture the Atom bomb, Hydrogen bomb and other deadly weapons. The other European Countries also participated in this race. So, the whole world was divided into two power blocs and paved the way for the Cold War. Thirdly, the Ideological Difference was another cause for the Cold War. When Soviet Russia spread Communism, at that time America propagated Capitalism. This propaganda ultimately accelerated the Cold War. Fourthly, Russian Declaration made another cause for the Cold War. Soviet Russia highlighted Communism in mass-media and encouraged the labour revolution. On the other hand, America helped the Capitalists against the Communism. So it helped to the growth of Cold War. Fifthly, the Nuclear Programme of America was responsible for another cause for the Cold War. After the bombardment of America on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet Russia got afraid for her existence. So, it also followed the same path to combat America. This led to the growth of Cold War. Lastly, the Enforcement of Veto by Soviet Russia against the western countries made them to hate Russia. When the western countries put forth any view in the Security Council of the UNO, Soviet Russia immediately opposed it through veto. So western countries became annoyed in Soviet Russia which gave birth to the Cold War. Various Phases of the Cold War: The Cold War did not occur in a day. It passed through several phases. First Phase (1945-1949): In this phase America and Soviet Russia disbelieved each other. America always tried to control the Red Regime in Russia. Without any hesitation Soviet Russia established Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 4 School of Distance Education Communism by destroying democracy in the Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary, Yugoslavia and other Eastern European Countries. In order to reduce Russia’s hegemony, America helped Greece and Turkey by following Truman Doctrine which came into force on 12 March 1947. According to Marshall Plan which was declared on 5 June, 1947 America gave financial assistance to Western European Countries. In this phase, non withdrawal of army from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin blockade etc. made the cold was more furious. After the formation of NATO in 1949, the Cold War took a halt. Second Phase (1949-1953): In this phase a treaty was signed between Australia, New-Zeland and America in September, 1957 which was known as ANZUS. America also signed a treaty with Japan on 8 September, 1951. At that time by taking armaments from Russia and army from China, North Korea declared war against South Korea. Then with the help of UNO, America sent military aid to South Korea. However, both North Korea and South Korea signed peace treaty in 1953 and ended the war. In order to reduce the impact of Soviet Communism, America spent a huge amount of dollar in propaganda against Communism. On the other hand, Soviet Russia tried to be equal with America by testing atom bomb. Third Phase (1953-1957): Now United States of America formed SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet Russia’s influence. In 1955 America formed MEDO in Middle East. Within a short span of time, America gave military assistance to 43 countries and formed 3300 military bases around Soviet Russia. At that time, the Vietnamese War started on 1955. To reduce the American Power, Russia signed WARSAW PACT in 1955. Russia also signed a defence pact with 12 Countries. Germany was divided into Federal Republic of Germany which was under the American control where as German Democratic Republic was under Soviet Russia. In 1957 Soviet Russia included Sputnik in her defence programme. In 1953 Stalin died and Khrushchev became the President of Russia. In 1956 an agreement was signed between America and Russia regarding the Suez Crisis. America agreed not to help her allies like England and France. In fact West Asia was saved from a great danger. Fourth Phase (1957-1962): In 1959 the Russian President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America. Both the countries were annoyed for U-2 accident and for Berlin Crisis. In 13 August 1961, Soviet Russia made a Berlin Wall of 25 Kilometres in order to check the immigration from eastern Berlin to Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 5 School of Distance Education This incident created an atmosphere of conversation between American President Kennedy and Russian President Khrushchev. America assured Russia that she would not attack Cuba and Russia also withdrew missile station from Cuba. Fifth Phase (1962-1969): The Fifth Phase which began from 1962 also marked a mutual suspicion between USA and USSR. There was a worldwide concern demanding ban on nuclear weapons. In this period Hot Line was established between the White House and Kremlin. This compelled both the parties to refrain from nuclear war. In spite of that the Vietnam problem and the Problem in Germany kept Cold War between USA and USSR in fact. Sixth Phase (1969-1978): This phase commencing from 1969 was marked by DETENTE between USA and USSR- the American President Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played a vital role for putting an end to the Cold War. The SALT of 1972, the summit Conference on Security’ of 1975 in Helsinki and Belgrade Conference of 1978 brought America and Russia closer. In 1971, American Foreign Secretary Henry Kissinger paid a secret visit to China to explore the possibilities of reapproachment with China. The American move to convert Diego Garcia into a military base was primarily designed to check the Soviet presence in the Indian Ocean. During the Bangladesh crisis of 1971 and the Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two super powers extended support to the opposite sides. Last Phase (1979-1987): In this phase certain changes were noticed in the Cold War. That is why historians call this phase as New Cold War. In 1979, the American President Carter and Russian President Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in 1979 the prospects of mitigating Cold War were marred by sudden development in Afghanistan. Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia (1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues brought success to Russia which was unbearable for America. American President Carter’s Human Rights and Open Diplomacy were criticised by Russia. The SALT II was not ratified by the US Senate. In 1980 America boycotted the Olympic held at Moscow. In 1983, Russia withdrew from a talk on missile with America. In 1984 Russia boycotted the Olympic game held at Los-Angeles. The Star War of the American President Ronald Regan annoyed Russia. In this way the ‘New Cold War’ between America and Russia continued till 1987. Result of the Cold War: The Cold War had far-reaching implications in the international affairs. At first, it gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in a mad race for the manufacture of more sophisticated armaments. Various alliances like NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, CENTO, ANZUS etc. were formed only to increase world tension. Secondly, Cold War rendered the UNO ineffective because both super powers tried to oppose the actions proposed by the opponent. The Korean Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War etc. were the bright examples in this direction. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 6 School of Distance Education Thirdly, due to the Cold War, a Third World was created. A large number of nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America decided to keep away from the military alliances of the two super powers. They liked to remain neutral. So, Non-Alignments Movement became the direct outcome of the Cold War. Fourthly, Cold War was designed against mankind. The unnecessary expenditure in the armament production created a barrier against the progress of the world and adversely affected a country and prevented improvement in the living standards of the people. Fifthly, the principle ‘Whole World as a Family’, was shattered on the rock of frustration due to the Cold War. It divided the world into two groups which was not a healthy sign for mankind. Sixthly, The Cold War created an atmosphere of disbelief among the countries. They questioned among themselves how unsafe were they under Russia or America. Finally, The Cold War disturbed the World Peace. The alliances and counter-alliances created a disturbing atmosphere. It was a curse for the world. Though Russia and America, being super powers, came forward to solve the international crisis, yet they could not be able to establish a perpetual peace in the world. Containment of Communism This is a foreign policy strategy created and executed by the US after WWII founding its first key purpose in the Truman Doctrine of 1947. President Harry Truman warned of the evils of communism that threatened the democratic freedom of its people which like the US, the Soviet Union wanted a world modelled on their own country’s society and values. Even though the Soviet claimed they provided all citizens with economic and social rights, the US saw communism as a slave state that control the private life and thoughts of its citizens. A threat that violated both democratic rights and civil liberties of its citizens and therefore required the continued efforts of America to make sure that it did not spread to the United States and other nations that have not yet moved politically towards Soviet Union communism. As such, this Policy of Containment stated that the US would try to stop (contain) the spread of Communism by creating strategic alliances or support to help weak countries to resist Soviet advances. This is a containment strategy plan that the U.S. used in the Cold War to prevent communism country, the Soviet Union from spreading Communism by providing either military support, economic and/or technical assistance to non-communist countries. Its aimed by so doing was to contain the domino effect of the growing influence and power of the Soviet Union over other non-communist country’s political system from moving towards communism within its existing limits. Thus, blocking the expansion of the USSR and communism. It was originally devised by US diplomat and historian George F. Kennan, best known as “the father of containment”. His writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of containment during the Truman Administration. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 7 School of Distance Education The Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan was a U.S.-sponsored program implemented following the Second World War to aid European countries that had been destroyed as a result of the war. Following World War II, the United States needed to formulate a plan to help rebuild wartattered Europe, and help create a stronger economic environment for Europe as a whole. The plan was first laid out by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall during an address at Harvard University in 1947, and was subsequently authorized by Congress as the European Recovery Program (ERP). The Marshall Plan gave over $13 billion in aid to European nations and was a key in revitalizing the post-war economies of these nations. The plan focused on modernizing both business and industrial practices across Europe, while reducing trade barriers between European nations and the United States. By 1952 U.S. funding ended, the economies of all the European recipients’ surpassed pre-war levels and the plan was considered a success. Truman Doctrine The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy to stop Soviet imperialism during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. No American military force was involved; instead Congress appropriated a free gift of financial aid to support the economies and the militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO: a full-fledged military alliance that is in effect to this day. Historians often use Truman's speech to date the start of the Cold War. Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." Truman reasoned, because these "totalitarian regimes" coerced "free peoples", they represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States. Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946–49). He argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. Because Turkey and Greece were historic rivals, it was necessary to help both equally, even though the threat to Greece was more immediate. Eric Foner argues, the Truman Doctrine "set a precedent for American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union." For years Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested the United States take over its role in supporting the Greeks and their government. The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in American money, but no military forces, to the region. The effect was to end the Communist threat, and in 1952 both Greece and Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance that guaranteed their protection. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 8 School of Distance Education The Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet from détente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion as advocated by diplomat George Kennan. It avoided the policy of rollback because it implicitly tolerated the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe. Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact (also known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization) was a political and military alliance established on May 14, 1955 between the Soviet Union and several Eastern European countries. The Soviet Union formed this alliance as a counterbalance to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a collective security alliance concluded between the United States, Canada and Western European nations in 1949. The Warsaw Pact supplemented existing agreements. Following World War II, the Soviet Union had concluded bilateral treaties with each of the East European states except for East Germany, which was still part of the Soviet occupied-territory of Germany. When the Federal Republic of Germany entered NATO in early May 1955, the Soviets feared the consequences of a strengthened NATO and a rearmed West Germany and hoped that the Warsaw Treaty Organization could both contain West Germany and negotiate with NATO as an equal partner. Soviet leadership also noted that civil unrest was on the rise in Eastern European countries and determined that a unified, multilateral political and military alliance would tie Eastern European capitals more closely to Moscow. The original signatories to the Warsaw Treaty Organization were the Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and the German Democratic Republic. Although the members of the Warsaw Pact pledged to defend each other if one or more of them came under attack, emphasized non-interference in the internal affairs of its members, and supposedly organized itself around collective decision-making, the Soviet Union ultimately controlled most of the Pact’s decisions. The Soviet Union also used the Pact to contain popular dissent in its European satellites, for example in Hungary in 1956, in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and in Poland in 1981. By the 1980s, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was beset by problems related to the economic slowdown in all Eastern European countries. By the late 1980s political changes in most of the member states made the Pact virtually ineffectual. In September 1990, East Germany left the Pact in preparation for reunification with West Germany. By October, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had withdrawn from all Warsaw Pact military exercises. The Warsaw Pact officially disbanded in March and July of 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Military Alliances North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 establishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This political and military alliance is designed to promote the stability of the North Atlantic area and to safeguard the freedom of its peoples, Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 9 School of Distance Education based on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. Canada has been a member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization since its inception. SEATO The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was an international organization for collective defence in Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defence Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand The organization's headquarters were also in Bangkok. Eight members joined the organization. Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military; however, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left longstanding effects in Southeast Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and withdrew. Baghdad Pact The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), originally known as the Baghdad Pact or the Middle East Treaty Organization(METO) was formed in 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. It was dissolved in 1979. U.S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the negotiations leading to the agreement, although the United States could not initially participate. John Foster Dulles, who was involved in the negotiations, ascribed this to "the pro-lobby and the difficulty of obtaining Congressional Approval." Others said the reason was "for purely technical reasons of budgeting procedures." In 1958, the United States joined the military committee of the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances. The organization's headquarters were located in Baghdad (Iraq) in 1955–1958 and in Ankara (Turkey) in 1958–1979. Cyprus was also an important location for CENTO due to its positioning within the Middle East and the British Sovereign Base Areas situated on the island. Cominform Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953. Although he had succeeded in establishing communist governments in all of Eastern Europe, he wanted to increase his control over each individual state. For this reason, he founded Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) in the year 1947 with the purpose of bringing together the European communist parties and coordinates their actions under the guidance of the Soviet. The roles of Cominform included publishing propaganda that enhanced the solidarity of communist parties internationally. It was dissolved in 1956. Berlin after 1945 Berlin, and what went on in Berlin from 1945 to 1950, seemed to symbolise all that the Cold War stood for. Berlin was to become the centre of the Cold War again in later years with the building of the Wall. The victorious forces at the end of the war divided Germany into four zones. They also divided Berlin into four zones. Each of the victorious nations controlled one zone and one sector of Berlin. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 10 School of Distance Education The Allies (Britain, America and France) ran their zones differently to the areas controlled by Russia. Russia wanted to keep Germany as weak as possible to ensure that Russia itself was never attacked again by Germany. They also took from their zones whatever was needed by Russia so that it could be used in Russia itself. This way, Russia could start to rebuild itself at Germany’s expense and the Germans would be kept poor. The Allies believed that a strong Germany would enable democracy to prosper after the years of Nazi dictatorship. They also believed that Europe needed a strong Germany so that their economies would prosper. To enable their zones to work more effectively, the British, Americans and French decided to amalgamate their zones into one unit and introduced into that one unit a new currency – the Deutschmark. All four occupying forces had agreed to inform one another if changes were going to be made in their respective zones. The Allies failed to do with regards to Russia. The biggest problem for Stalin was that the German people of the Russian controlled block could not see the prosperity that was occurring in the other zones – but they could see the difference in Berlin as three of the zones in Berlin were controlled by the Allies and prospered accordingly. Therefore, to Stalin, the Allies being in Berlin was the problem. He needed to remove them from Berlin and have a Russian controlled city as opposed to a segment of that city. Stalin could not forcibly remove the Allies – he still had to reckon with America having the A-bomb and Russia did not in 1948. He therefore ordered the closing of all rail lines, canals and roads that entered West Berlin through the Russian sector. This cut off supplies of food and fuel. The only way for the Allies to supply their sectors in Berlin was to fly in supplies. Stalin would not dare to shoot down Allied planes with America’s atomic supremacy. Flights into Berlin lasted for 11 months and when it became clear that the Allies would stand firm, Stalin gave in. The Allies remained in their sectors in Berlin. The Importance of Berlin Wall The Berlin Wall, built in August of 1961, was s physical symbol of the political and emotional divisions of Germany. The Wall was built because of a long lasting suspicion between the Soviet Union on one side and Western Europe and the United States on the other. For 28 years the Berlin Wall separated friends, families, and a nation. After WWII was over Germany was divided into four parts. The United States, Great Britain, and France controlled the three divisions that were formed in the Western half and the Eastern half was controlled by the Soviet Republic. The Western sections eventually united to make a federal republic, while the Eastern half became communist . Even though Berlin lay deep within the Soviet sector, the Allies thought it would be the best to divide this capital. Therefore Berlin was also divided into four parts. Since the Soviet Union was in control of the eastern half of Germany, they made East Berlin the capital of East Germany. The other three counties were each in control of a small part of what was to be West Germany. The Allies decided that they would come together to form one country out of their three divided parts. Those three divided parts formed West Germany. After all the land was divided the Soviet Union controlled East Germany. Just like the Soviet Union, the economy in East Germany was struggling to get back on its feet after the war. While West Berlin became a lively urban area like many American cities. In conclusion Berlin Wall was an important milestone in the growth of the Cold War. It was the expansion that represented the thinking of a determined Communist system. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 11 School of Distance Education Western Capitalism, which was more powerful, eventually defeated the system. The massive wall that did so much harm to a country was finally destroyed, and the people of Germany could now live the way they all wanted to live. They could live the life of freedom. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall East Germany has went through a lot of changes and it still is not easy for all of the people in East Germany. But no matter how hard it is for the people of East Germany now, it is better than being alone and separated from their families, friends and rest of Europe. Re-unification The German reunification was the process in 1990 in which the German Democratic Republic(GDR/East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West Germany) to form the reunited nation of Germany, and when Berlin reunited into a single city, as provided by its then Grundgesetz constitution Article 23. The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October (German Unity Day) The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungary's border fence opened a hole in the Iron Curtain. It caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The Peaceful Revolution, a series of protests by East Germans, led to the GDR's first free elections on 18 March 1990, and to the negotiations between the GDR and FRG that culminated in a Unification Treaty. Other negotiations between the GDR and FRG and the four occupying powers produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty" (Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany) granting full sovereignty to a unified German state, whose two parts had previously still been bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-World War II status as occupied regions. The united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal Republic and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in international organizations including the European Community (later the European Union) and NATO, while relinquishing membership in the Warsaw Pact and other international organizations to which only East Germany belonged. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 12 School of Distance Education MODULE-II CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA Korean War The Korean War was fought between South Korea and communist North Korea. It was the first major conflict of the Cold War as the Soviet Union supported North Korea and the United States supported South Korea. The war ended with little resolution. The countries are still divided today and North Korea is still ruled by a communist regime. Dates: June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953 Leaders: The leader and Prime Minister of North Korea was Kim Il-sung. North Korea's chief commander was Choi Yong-kun. The President of South Korea was Syngman Rhee. The South Korean Army was led by Chung II-kwon. The United States Army and United Nations forces were lead by General Douglas MacArthur. The US President at the start of the war was Harry Truman. Dwight D. Eisenhower was president by the end of the war. Countries Involved Supporting North Korea was the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. Supporting South Korea was the United States, Great Britain, and the United Nations. Before the War Before World War II the Korean Peninsula had been a part of Japan. After the war it needed to be divided up. The Northern half went under the control of the Soviet Union and the Southern half under the control of the United States. The two sides were divided at the 38th parallel. Eventually two separate states formed with North Korea forming a communist government with Kim Il-sung as leader and South Korea forming a capitalist government under the rule of Syngman Rhee. The two sides did not get along and there were constant skirmishes and battles along the border at the 38th parallel. Attempts were being made to negotiate a unified country, but they were going nowhere. North Korea Attacks On June 25, 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea. The South Korean Army fled and forces from the United Nations came to help out. The United States provided the majority of the United Nations forces. Soon the South Korea government only occupied a small part of Korea on the southern tip. The War Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 13 School of Distance Education At first the United Nations was only trying to defend South Korea, however, after the first summer of fighting, President Truman decided to go on the offensive. He said the war was now about liberating North Korea from communism. Battle of Inchon General George MacArthur led the UN forces on an attack at the Battle of Inchon. The Battle was a success and MacArthur was able to move in and route much of the North Korean army. He soon had retaken control of the city of Seoul as well as South Korea back up to the 38th parallel. China Enters the War MacArthur continued to be aggressive and pushed the North Koreans all the way to the northern border. However, the Chinese were not happy with this and sent their army to enter the war. At this point President Truman replaced MacArthur with General Matthew Ridgway. Back to the 38th Parallel Ridgway fortified the border just north of the 38th Parallel. Here the two sides would battle for the rest of the war. North Korea would attack the south at various points and the UN army would retaliate trying to prevent more attacks. End of the War Negotiations continued for much of the war, but President Truman did not want to appear weak. When Eisenhower became president, he was much more willing to offer concessions to end the war. On July 17, 1953 a treaty was signed that ended the war. Few things had changed as a result of the war. Both countries would remain independent and the border would remain at the 38th parallel. However, between the two countries a 2 mile demilitarized zone was placed to act as a buffer in hopes to prevent future wars. Vietnam War Dates: November 1, 1955 - April 30, 1975 The Vietnam War was fought between communist North Vietnam and the government of Southern Vietnam. The North was supported by communist countries such as the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The South was supported by anti-communist countries, primarily the United States. The United States lost the Vietnam War. It lasted for twenty years, something the US never expected when it joined in the fight. Not only did the US lose the war and the country of Vietnam to the communists, the US lost prestige in the eyes of the world. Before the War Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 14 School of Distance Education Prior to World War II Vietnam had been a colony of the French. During World War II the Japanese took control of the area. When the war ended there was a power vacuum. Vietnamese revolutionary and communist Ho Chi Minh wanted freedom for the country of Vietnam. However, the Allies all agreed that Vietnam belonged to the French. Containment Eventually Ho Chi Minh and his rebels began to fight the French. Ho's soldiers in the north were called the Viet Minh. Ho tried to get US help, but they didn't want Ho to succeed as they were worried about communism spreading throughout Southeast Asia. When Ho began to have success against the French, the US became more concerned. In 1950 they began sending aid to the French in Vietnam. The US Enters the War In 1954 the French lost a major battle to the Vietnamese. They decided to pull out of Vietnam. The country was divided up into a communist Northern Vietnam and a Southern Vietnam. It was supposed to be reunited under a single election in 1956. However, the United States did not want the country to become communist. They helped Ngo Dinh Diem get elected in the South. Major Events during the War March 1959 - Ho Chi Minh declared all out war in order to unite Vietnam under one rule. December 1961 - US military advisors begin to take a direct role in the war. August 1964 - The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution is passed by the US Congress after two US Destroyers were attacked by the North Vietnamese. This allowed US troops to use armed force in the area. March 8, 1965 - The first official US combat troops arrive in Vietnam. The US begins a bombing campaign of Northern Vietnam called Operation Rolling Thunder. January 30, 1968 - North Vietnam launches the Tet Offensive attacking around 100 cities in Southern Vietnam. July 1969 - President Nixon begins the withdrawal of US troops. March 1972 - The North Vietnamese attack across the border in the Easter Offensive. President Johnson's War Plan President Lyndon Johnson had the plan to help the Southern Vietnamese get strong enough to fight the North rather than having the US win the war for them. By putting limits on the troops and not allowing them to attack Northern Vietnam from 1965 to 1969, the US had no chance to win. A Difficult War Not only were the US troops limited in what they could do strategically by President Johnson, the jungles of Vietnam proved a difficult place to fight a war. It was very difficult to find the enemy in the jungles and also difficult to determine who was the enemy. The troops Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 15 School of Distance Education had to deal with booby traps and constant ambushes from people they thought they were fighting for. The US Exits the War When Richard Nixon became president he decided to end US involvement in the war. He first began removing troops from Vietnam in July of 1969. On January 27, 1973 a peace fire was negotiated. A few months later in March the final US troops were removed from Vietnam. In April of 1975 South Vietnam surrendered to North Vietnam. Soon the country became officially unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Vietnam was now a communist country. The US had lost the Vietnam War and also taken a major blow in the Cold War. A Proxy War The Vietnam War can be considered a "proxy" war in the Cold War. Although the Soviet Union and the United States did not directly go to war, they each supported a different side in the war. The creation of Israel The discovery of the Holocaust created great sympathy for the Jews. Many western countries wanted to create a homeland where they could settle and feel safe. The problem was that there were hundreds of thousands of Arabs living in Palestine and they naturally believed that the land was theirs by right. They had lived there for more than a thousand years. Jews had been arriving in the area since the 1890s. Jews believed that Palestine was the ‘Promised Land’ of the Old Testament and that therefore they had a right to settle there. Friction had soon developed between them and the Arabs. In the 1930s there had been a civil war between the two groups. The British had tried to solve the problem but in the end only managed to make the situation more difficult. They appeared to make promises to both sides, which they could obviously not keep. Eventually they had been forced to give up. In 1947 the United Nations was faced with having to come up with a solution. The United Nations recommended dividing Palestine between Arabs and Jews. The plan was published in November 1947. The Arabs immediately rejected partition, because they believed that Palestine was theirs by right. The Plan also appeared to favour the Jews. Although the population of Palestine was about 60 percent Arab, the Jews received more than half of the land and the more fertile areas as well. The Arabs were allotted areas that were mostly deserted. As the British withdrew, the Palestinians fought to gain control of every town. On the other side, Israeli terrorist gangs, the 'Stern' and the 'Irgun', forced Arabs to leave their homes and flee for their lives. Those who stayed, or tried to fight, were killed, men, women and children. This was a major factor in the bitter hatred that developed between Jews and Arabs. Nevertheless, the United Nations plan was approved and preparations began for the new state of Israel. For their part, the Israelis announced that Israel would be a secular state that meant that religion would have no influence, and that all people living within its borders would have the full rights of citizenship. In other words, although Israel was being created as a homeland for Jews, Arabs would qualify as citizens and be able to vote and stand for the Knesset, the Israeli parliament. This did not satisfy many Arabs. They did not want to live in Israel. They wanted a state of their own. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 16 School of Distance Education On 14 May 1948 the Israeli Prime Minister, David Ben Gurion, announced the creation of the state of Israel. There was great rejoicing in Tel Aviv, but the Arab governments in the surrounding countries objected to the new state and tried to destroy it. On 15 May 1948 the armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt attacked Israel. Arab-Israeli Wars The Arabs expected to destroy Israel very quickly. In theory they outnumbered the Israelis 80 to 1, but the differences between the armed forces of the two sides were much less significant. In fact the Arab armies were stopped and then driven back and Israel occupied all the territory of Palestine. The numbers of soldiers on both sides were about equal, but the Haganah, which was the basis of the Israeli army, was well trained and used to fighting. On the other hand, the Arab armies were inexperienced and divided. Each of the countries had its own battle plans and aims. Israel’s opponents made separate truces the first in January 1949 and the last in July 1949. Israel’s forces were also much better armed and supplied than those of the Arabs. The Israelis had been able to buy large supplies of modern equipment from abroad, particularly from the USA. There was great support for the new state of Israel in the USA. A very large number of Jews had emigrated there and dominated some areas in New York City. Jewish influence was very strong and played a very important role in business. The Jewish vote was also very important in presidential elections. The Israelis defended their country and occupied more territory. They took over all of the areas that the United Nations had set aside for Arabs. Arabs living in the areas occupied by Israel began to leave. Altogether about 800,000 Arabs left the new state of Israel. This created the Palestinian refugee problem, which was to be at the heart of Middle Eastern affairs for the next fifty years. As more Jewish immigrants began to arrive, new settlements were begun to house the new immigrants. Many of these were in areas that Israel had occupied during the war of 1948-9. This was a further source of anger for Arabs. 6,000 Jews had been killed during the war. But there were no peace treaties afterwards, so it was clear that this was no more than a cessation of hostilities. Another attack could be expected at any time. Israelis were well aware that they had to be on their guard against another attack. Israel became a country on a permanent war footing. The Israeli government tried to encourage more immigration in an effort to increase the Israeli population. In 1950, the Law of Return gave every Jew the right to return to Israel. The population rose rapidly as a result. For the Arab states, the most lasting problem created by the war was the Palestinian refugees. Altogether about 800,000 Arabs fled from Palestine to neighbouring countries, where they lived in squalid refugee camps. The refugee camps became the training grounds for the freedom fighters or 'Fedayeen'. Attacks began almost immediately upon targets in Israel. In 1951, 137 Israelis were killed and in 1955 238 were killed. The war increased Arab suspicion of the West and particularly of the USA, which had recognised Israel immediately. For the first time the Arab states began to look towards the Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 17 School of Distance Education Soviet Union. In the Middle East, the war led to increased support for Arab nationalists such as Nasser in Egypt and led to the downfall of King Farouq of Egypt. As the war was only ended by a series of truces, the borders of Israel were not fixed but marked by armistice lines. Over the next few years there were repeated incursions from both side and constant artillery bombardments. Suez Crisis The Suez Crisis was an event in the Middle East in 1956. It began with Egypt taking control of the Suez Canal which was followed by a military attack from Israel, France, and Great Britain. The Suez Canal The Suez Canal is an important man-made waterway in Egypt. It connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. This is important for ships travelling from Europe to and from the Middle East and India. The Suez Canal was built by French developer Ferdinand de Lesseps. It took over 10 years and an estimated one and a half million workers to complete. The canal was first opened on November 17, 1869. Nasser Becomes President of Egypt In 1954 Gamal Abdel Nasser took control of Egypt. One of Nasser's goals was to modernize Egypt. He wanted to build the Aswan Dam as a major part of the improvement. The United States and the British had agreed to loan Egypt the money for the Dam, but then pulled their funding due to Egypt's military and political ties to the Soviet Union. Nasser was angry. Seizing the Canal In order to pay for the Aswan Dam, Nasser decided to take over the Suez Canal. It had been controlled by the British in order to keep it open and free to all countries. Nasser seized the canal and was going to charge for passage in order to pay for the Aswan Dam. Israel, France, and Great Britain Collude The British, the French, and the Israelis all had issues with Nasser's government at the time. They decided to use the canal as a reason to attack Egypt. They secretly planned that Israel would attack and seize the canal. Then the French and the British would enter as peacekeepers taking control of the canal. Israel Attacks Just like they had planned, the Israeli's attacked and grabbed the canal. Then the British and French jumped in. They told both sides to stop, but when Egypt wouldn't they bombed Egypt's air force. The Crisis Ends Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 18 School of Distance Education The Americans were angry with the French and the British. At the same time of the Suez Crisis, the Soviet Union was invading Hungary. The Soviet Union had also threatened to enter the Suez Crisis on the side of the Egyptians. The United States ended up forcing the Israelis, the British, and the French to withdraw in order to prevent conflict with the Soviet Union . Results One result of the Suez Crisis was that the esteem of Great Britain was never quite the same again. It was clear that the two world superpowers at the time were the United States and the Soviet Union. This was the Cold War and when something had an impact on the interests of the United States and the Soviet Union, they were going to get involved and assert their power. The Suez Canal had strategic and economic impact for both the Soviet Union and the United States. It was in both of their interests to keep the canal open. P.L.O The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is a political group that represents the Palestinian people. The Palestinians are Arabs who live in the region called Palestine, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. They lost much of their land when the country of Israel was created in Palestine in 1948. Since then the Palestinians have worked for the creation of an independent Palestinian state. The PLO was formed in 1964. It brought various Palestinian groups together in one organization. In 1969 Yasser Arafat took control of the PLO. Beginning in the late 1960s the PLO launched many attacks against Israel. Its goal was to wipe out Israel as a country. Many people considered the PLO to be a terrorist group. In the 1980s some people within the PLO moved away from the goal of destroying Israel. They believed that a Palestinian state could exist alongside Israel. In 1988 the PLO's leaders declared an independent Palestinian state. They also stated that Israel had a right to exist. Some Palestinian groups disagreed. They continued to call for Israel's destruction. In 1993 the PLO and Israel took part in secret talks in Oslo, Norway. The talks led to a series of peace agreements. For the first time, Israel and the PLO each admitted that the other had a right to exist. Israel also agreed to gradually give up some of the Palestinian areas it controlled. A group called the Palestinian Authority was created to govern these areas. Arafat and two Israeli leaders won the Nobel peace prize for their efforts. The transfer of territory was delayed because of fighting between Israel and the Palestinians. But in 2005 Israel gave up the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank. AL-fATAH Fataḥ (Arabic: Fatḥ), formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement (Levantine Arabic: [ˈfateħ]), is a secular Palestinian political party and the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 19 School of Distance Education Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in revolutionary struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had been closely identified with the leadership of its founder Yasser Arafat, until his death in 2004. Since Arafat's departure, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more apparent. In the 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to Hamas. Having resigned all its cabinet positions, it did not then assume the role of main opposition party. Fatah's size is estimated at 6,000–8,000 fighters with 45–300 politicians. However, the Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank. Hamas Hamas is an organization of Palestinian Arabs. Its name means “Islamic Resistance Movement.” The goal of Hamas is to create an Islamic country in Palestine. Members of Hamas think that the Jewish country of Israel should not exist. Hamas was founded in 1987. Its founders declared that Palestine is a homeland for Muslims only. They called on all Palestinian Muslims to wage a holy war against Israel. They claimed that this fight was a religious duty. In 1988 the main Palestinian political group, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), said that Israel had the right to exist. Hamas strongly disagreed. Hamas's forces began launching terrorist attacks against Israel. After the PLO and Israel signed a peace agreement in 1993, Hamas increased its attacks. Nevertheless, the PLO included Hamas members in the new Palestinian government, the Palestinian Authority. In 2006 Hamas members participated in elections to the Palestinian Authority's council. Hamas defeated the political party Fatah and won the most seats on the council. Hamas and Fatah formed a combined government, but the parties could not get along. Forces representing both groups fought each other in the Palestinian territory known as the Gaza Strip. Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007. (Fatah remained in control of the other Palestinian territory, the West Bank.) Israel launched attacks on the Gaza Strip, and Hamas's forces attacked Israel. In 2011 Fatah and Hamas agreed to work together again. THE GULF WARS Iran-Iraq War of 1980 The Iran-Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War) was a border war between Iran and Iraq which lasted from September 22, 1980 until August 20, 1988. This war was Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 20 School of Distance Education commonly known as the Persian Gulf War until the Iraq-Kuwait Conflict (1990-91), which became known as the Second Gulf War and later simply the Gulf War. The conflict was occasioned by Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's desire for full control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway at the head of the Persian Gulf, an important channel for the oil exports of both countries. The United States armed and encouraged Hussein to attack Iran over this disputed waterway as a possible way of undermining the Iranian Revolution of 1979 which had eliminated U.S. control of Iran. In 1975, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had sanctioned the Shah of Iran to attack Iraq over the waterway, which was then under Iraqi control. Iraq and other Arab countries also feared the possible spread of Iran's brand of Islamic militancy following the February 1979 revolution against the Shah. Iraq also had designs on the Iranian province of Khuzestan which has an Arab majority. Another factor that precipitated the Iran-Iraq conflict was the ambition of the leaders of each country. Ayatollah Khomeini had designs on spreading his brand of Islamic Fundamentalism throughout the Middle East. These efforts were minimal, however, as the Islamic Revolution had only recently seized control of Iran. Hussein had also recently come to power and was interested in elevating Iraq to a regional superpower. A successful invasion of western Iran would make Iraq the sole dominating force in the Gulf region and its lucrative oil trade. Such lofty ambitions were not that farfetched. Severe officer purges and spare part shortages for Iran's American made equipment had crippled Iran's once mighty military. To top it off, Iran had minimal defences in the Shatt al Arab area. On September 22, 1980, Iraq seized the opportunity and invaded. He used the Iran-backed assassination attempt aimed at then-Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz as a pretext for the attack. Iraq enjoyed substantial diplomatic support and military supplies from the Soviet Union, and the financial backing of other Arab states (notably oil-rich Kuwait and Saudi). In addition, the United States "tilted" toward Iraq, supplying it with weapons and economic aid. For a period starting in 1985, the United States sold weapons to Iran in addition to Iraq. This sparked the 1986-1987 Iran-Contra Affairs in Washington. The war was characterized by extreme brutality, including the use of chemical weapons, including tabun, by Iraq. Very little pressure was brought upon Iraq by the world community to curb such attacks or to condemn its earlier initiation of hostilities. The tactics used in the war resembled those of World War I with costly human commonly used by both sides. In June 1982 a successful Iranian counter-offensive recovered the areas lost to Iraq in the war's early stages: Iraq offered a cessation of hostilities as outright Iranian victory appeared a possibility, but Iran's insistence from July on pursuing the destruction of the Iraqi regime prolonged the conflict for another six years. Continued hostilities despite the intervention of western naval forces to protect the sea lanes of the Gulf led to the death of 37 seamen in an Iraq missile attack (May 17, 1987) on the U.S. frigate Stark and the shooting down by the U.S. cruiser Vincennes (July 3, 1988) of an Iranian airliner (apparently mistaken for an approaching military aircraft) with the loss of all 290 passengers and crew. Aftermath Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 21 School of Distance Education The war was disastrous for both countries, stalling economic development and disrupting oil exports, and costing an estimated million lives. Iraq was left with serious debts to its former Arab backers, including $14 billion loaned by Kuwait, a debt which contributed to Hussein's 1990 decision to invade Kuwait. The end of the war left the borders unchanged. Two years later, as war with the western powers loomed, Hussein recognised Iranian rights over the eastern half of the Shatt al-Arab, a reversion to the status quo which he had repudiated a decade earlier. The Kuwait War of 1990 In 1990 an army from Iraq took over the country of Kuwait. In January 1991 the United (UN) sent in armies from many countries to push out the Iraqis. The war they fought is called the Persian Gulf War. (Kuwait and Iraq lie on the Persian Gulf, a body of water in the Middle East.) Background Iraq needed money after fighting the Iran-Iraq War, which ended in 1988. Iraq's neighbour Kuwait was rich because it produced oil. To get control of Kuwait's oil, President Saddam Hussein of Iraq sent in troops on August 2, 1990. Kuwait fell quickly to the Iraqis. Almost every other country disapproved of what Iraq had done. On November 29 the UN threatened Iraq with military force unless it got out of Kuwait by January 15, 1991. The United States and other countries thought that Iraq might also try to get the oil supply in Saudi Arabia. (Saudi Arabia is next to Kuwait and Iraq.) To shield Saudi Arabia, they sent forces there. This military build-up was called Operation Desert Shield. By January 1991 there were about 700,000 troops in the Persian Gulf region ready to fight Iraq. These allied troops came from the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and several other countries. Meanwhile, Saddam Hussein ignored the UN's deadline. He built up his army in Kuwait to about 300,000 troops. War During the night of January 16–17, the Persian Gulf War began with a massive attack on Iraq by allied warplanes. This campaign was named Operation Desert Storm. A ground attack, called Operation Desert Saber, followed on February 23–24. Within just four days, Iraq's troops stopped fighting. Arab and U.S. forces easily recaptured Kuwait's capital. The war ended on February 27, 1991. About 300 allied soldiers and thousands of Iraqis died in the war. Results The UN had banned most trade with Iraq before the war. The ban remained in force after the fighting ended. At the same time, the UN told Iraq that it must destroy many of its Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 22 School of Distance Education weapons. The UN sent inspectors to Iraq to make sure that the Iraqis destroyed the weapons. In about 1998, however, Iraq stopped cooperating with the inspectors. This and other disputes led to another war. The United States and other troops invaded Iraq in March 2003. Attack on World Trade Centre in USA On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the Unites States. They hijacked four airplanes in mid-flight. The terrorists flew two of the planes into two skyscrapers at the World Trade Centre in New York City. The impact caused the buildings to catch fire and collapse. Another plane destroyed part of the Pentagon (the U.S. military headquarters) in Arlington, Virginia. The fourth plane crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Officials believe that the terrorists on that plane intended to destroy either the White House or the U.S. Capitol. Passengers on the plane fought the terrorists and prevented them from reaching their goal. In all, nearly 3,000 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks. Who attacked us? A total of 19 terrorists hijacked the four planes on 9/11. All of the men were from nations in the Middle East. They belonged to a terrorist group called Al Qaeda (ahl KAYdah), led by Osama bin Laden. Al Qaeda practices an extreme version of the religion of Islam. The group is intensely opposed to the United States and other Western, democratic nations. They are especially against the military presence of these countries in Arab nations. Since the group’s creation by bin Laden in the late 1980s, Al Qaeda has helped coordinate and fund numerous bombings worldwide. How did America respond to 9/11? In October 2001, the U.S. and its allies invaded Afghanistan, where Al Qaeda was based. The extreme Islamic group that ran Afghanistan's government, known as the Taliban, was protecting Bin Laden and allowing Al Qaeda to run training camps in the country. U.S.led forces soon brought down the Taliban. They are still working to help rebuild and stabilize the nation. Since 2001, many Al Qaeda members have been captured or killed. On May 1, 2011, U.S. troops killed Bin Laden where he was hiding in Pakistan. The U.S. invaded Iraq in 2003. Then President George W. Bush and other U.S. leaders believed that the country’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, was hiding terrible weapons that could be given to terrorists. Hussein was captured and later put to death by an Iraqi court. No weapons of mass destruction were found. How did America change after 9/11? Following 9/11, the U.S. government took many steps to try to make the country safer. It tightened security at airports and in public buildings. A new cabinet-level department—the Department of Homeland Security—was created. It works to protect the United States from terrorism. The war in Afghanistan Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 23 School of Distance Education The war in Afghanistan (or the American war in Afghanistan) is the period in which the United States invaded Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks. Supported initially by close allies, they were later joined by NATO beginning in 2003. It followed the Afghan Civil War's 1996–2001 phase. Its public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power. Key allies, including the United Kingdom, supported the U.S. from the start to the end of the phase. This phase of the War is the longest war in United States history. In 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda; bin Laden had already been wanted by the United Nations since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks and declined demands to extradite other terrorism suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a delaying tactic, and on 7 October 2001 it launched Operation Enduring Freedom with the United Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern. In December 2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), to assist the Afghan interim authorities with securing Kabul. At the Bonn Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country, now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. NATO became involved as an alliance in August 2003, taking the helm of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), and later that year assumed leadership of ISAF with troops from 43 countries. NATO members provided the core of the force. One portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in 2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF. Though outgunned and outnumbered, insurgents from the Taliban, Haqqani Network, Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin and other groups have waged asymmetric warfare with guerrilla and ambushes in the countryside, suicide against urban targets and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. ISAF responded in 2006 by increasing troops for counterinsurgency operations to "clear and hold" villages and "nation building" projects to "win hearts and minds". While ISAF continued to battle the Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighbouring North-West Pakistan. On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbot bad, Pakistan. In May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces. UN-backed peace talks have since taken place between the Afghan government and the Taliban. In May 2014, the United States announced that "[its] combat operations [would] end in 2014, [leaving] just a small residual force in the country until the end of 2016".As of 2015, tens of thousands of people have been killed in the war. Over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan national security forces members have been killed, as well as nearly 20 thousand civilians. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government, via a ceremony in Kabul. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 24 School of Distance Education MODULE-III CHANGING WORLD Emergence of People's Republic of China Following the Chinese Civil War and the victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949. The Chinese Revolution of 1949 On October 1, 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong declared the creation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The announcement ended the costly full-scale civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang (KMT), which broke out immediately following World War II and had been preceded by on and off conflict between the two sides since the 1920’s. The creation of the PRC also completed the long process of governmental upheaval in China begun by the Chinese Revolution of 1911. The “fall” of mainland China to communism in 1949 led the United States to suspend diplomatic ties with the PRC for decades. The Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921 in Shanghai, originally existed as a study group working within the confines of the First United Front with the Nationalist Party. Chinese Communists joined with the Nationalist Army in the Northern Expedition of 1926– 27 to rid the nation of the warlords that prevented the formation of a strong central government. This collaboration lasted until the “White Terror” of 1927, when the Nationalists turned on the Communists, killing them or purging them from the party. After the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931, the Government of the Republic of China (ROC) faced the triple threat of Japanese invasion, Communist uprising, and warlord insurrections. Frustrated by the focus of the Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek on internal threats instead of the Japanese assault, a group of generals abducted Chiang in 1937 and forced him to reconsider cooperation with the Communist army. As with the first effort at cooperation between the Nationalist government and the CCP, this Second United Front was short-lived. The Nationalists expended needed resources on containing the Communists, rather than focusing entirely on Japan, while the Communists worked to strengthen their influence in rural society. During World War II, popular support for the Communists increased. U.S. officials in China reported a dictatorial suppression of dissent in Nationalist-controlled areas. These undemocratic polices combined with wartime corruption made the Republic of China Government vulnerable to the Communist threat. The CCP, for its part, experienced success in its early efforts at land reform and was lauded by peasants for its unflagging efforts to fight against the Japanese invaders. Japanese surrender set the stage for the resurgence of civil war in China. Though only nominally democratic, the Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive U.S. support both as its former war ally and as the sole option for preventing Communist control of China. U.S. forces flew tens of thousands of Nationalist Chinese troops into Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 25 School of Distance Education Japanese-controlled territory and allowed them to accept the Japanese surrender. The Soviet Union, meanwhile, occupied Manchuria and only pulled out when Chinese Communist forces were in place to claim that territory. In 1945, the leaders of the Nationalist and Communist parties, Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war government. Both agreed on the importance of democracy, a unified military, and equality for all Chinese political parties. The truce was tenuous, however, and, in spite of repeated efforts by U.S. General George Marshall to broker an agreement, by 1946 the two sides were fighting an allout civil war. Years of mistrust between the two sides thwarted efforts to form a coalition government. As the civil war gained strength from 1947 to 1949, eventual Communist victory seemed more and more likely. Although the Communists did not hold any major cities after World War II, they had strong grassroots support, superior military organization and morale, and large stocks of weapons seized from Japanese supplies in Manchuria. Years of corruption and mismanagement had eroded popular support for the Nationalist Government. Early in 1947, the ROC Government was already looking to the island province of Taiwan, off the coast of Fujian Province, as a potential point of retreat. Although officials in the Truman Administration were not convinced of the strategic importance to the United States of maintaining relations with Nationalist China, no one in the U.S. Government wanted to be charged with facilitating the “loss” of China to communism. Military and financial aid to the floundering Nationalists continued, though not at the level that Chiang Kai-shek would have liked. In October of 1949, after a string of military victories, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the PRC; Chiang and his forces fled to Taiwan to regroup and plan for their efforts to retake the mainland. The ability of the PRC and the United States to find common ground in the wake of the establishment of the new Chinese state was hampered by both domestic politics and global tensions. In August of 1949, the Truman administration published the “China White Paper,” which explained past U.S. policy toward China based upon the principle that only Chinese forces could determine the outcome of their civil war. Unfortunately for Truman, this step failed to protect his administration from charges of having “lost” China. The unfinished nature of the revolution, leaving a broken and exiled but still vocal Nationalist Government and army on Taiwan, only heightened the sense among U.S. anti-communists that the outcome of the struggle could be reversed. The outbreak of the Korean War, which pitted the PRC and the United States on opposite sides of an international conflict, ended any opportunity for accommodation between the PRC and the United States. Truman’s desire to prevent the Korean conflict from spreading south led to the U.S. policy of protecting the Chiang Kai-shek government on Taiwan. For more than twenty years after the Chinese revolution of 1949, there were few contacts, limited trade and no diplomatic ties between the two countries. Until the 1970s, the United States continued to recognize the Republic of China, located on Taiwan, as China’s true government and supported that government’s holding the Chinese seat in the United Nations. Mao Zedong Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 26 School of Distance Education Mao Zedong (also called Mao Tse-tung) founded the People's Republic of China and was the primary leader of the country from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. Mao also led the communist revolution in China and fought against the Nationalist Party in the Chinese Civil War. His ideas and philosophies regarding communism and Marxism are often referred to as Maoism. Where did Mao grow up? Mao was born the son of a peasant farmer on December 26, 1893 in Shaoshan, Hunan Province, China. He attended the local school until he turned 13 when he went to work full time on the family's farm. In 1911 Mao joined the Revolution Army and fought against the Qing Dynasty. After that he went back to school. He also worked as a librarian. Becoming a Communist In 1921 Mao went to his first communist party meeting. He soon became a leader in the party. When the communists allied with the Kuomintang, Moa went to work for Sun Yatsen in Hunan.Since Mao grew up a peasant he believed strongly in communist ideas. He studied Marxism and felt that communism was the best way to get the peasants behind him in overthrowing the government. Chinese Civil War After President Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek took over the government and the Kuomintang. Chiang no longer wanted the communists as part of his government. He broke the alliance with the communists and began killing and imprisoning communist leaders. The Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (also called the Nationalist Party) and the communists had begun. After years of fighting, the Kuomintang decided to destroy the communists once and for all. In 1934 Chiang took a million soldiers and attacked the main communist camp. Mao convinced the leaders to retreat. The Long March The retreat of the communists from the Kuomintang army is called the Long March today. Over the course of a year Mao led the communists over 7,000 miles across southern China and then north to Shaanxi province. Although most of the soldiers died during the march, around 8,000 survived. These 8,000 were loyal to Mao. Mao Zedong was now the leader of the communist party (also called the CPC). More Civil War The Civil War subsided for a while when the Japanese invaded China and during World War II, but picked up again quickly after the war. This time Mao and the communists were stronger. They soon routed the Kuomintang. Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of Taiwan. Founding the People's Republic of China Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 27 School of Distance Education In 1949 Mao Zedong founded the People's Republic of China. Mao was the Chairman of the Communist Party and the absolute leader of China. He was a brutal leader, insuring his power by executing anyone who disagreed with him. He also set up labour camps where millions of people were sent and many died. The Great Leap Forward I In 1958 Mao announced his plan to industrialize China. He called it the Great Leap Forward. Unfortunately the plan backfired. Soon the country experienced a terrible famine. It is estimated that 40 million people starved to death. This horrible failure caused Mao to lose power for a time. He was still part of the government, but no longer had absolute power. The Cultural Revolution In 1966 Mao made his comeback in the Cultural Revolution. Many young peasants followed him and formed the Red Guard. These loyal soldiers helped him to take over. Schools were shut down and people who disagreed with Mao were either killed or sent to the farms to be re-educated through hard labour. Death Mao ruled China until he died on September 9, 1976 from Parkinson's disease. He was 82 years old. Nationalist Movement in Africa The topic of African nationalism has been repeatedly contested and redefined over the past century. At the end of the nineteenth century, the European powers divided the continent and ruled virtually all of Africa, and African nations lost their sovereignty. During the 1950s and 1960s, when Africans began to seriously resist colonial rule, Africa underwent a major transformation and each colony eventually gained its freedom. Africans, in general, united in hopes of regaining their sovereignty. Nationalism originally referred to the process of uniting and regaining freedom from European rule, but it was also defined by pioneer African leaders to mean the creation of new nations as well as their economic and political transformation. African nationalism is a political movement for Pan-Africanism and for national selfdetermination. Origins of the idea come from European nationalist schools of thought. Political interest began in the 1870s and political organizations started to form in the 1890s. African Nationalism came to mean the struggle against foreign colonial powers ruling over African territory. In the years after Second World War, African nationalism gained strength, resulting in independence for Libya in 1951 and Ghana in 1957. All but six African countries were independent nation-states by 1966. Later after many successful nationalist movements in Africa, "African Nationalism" began to be associated with the PanAfrican movement. Edward Wilmot Blyden has been described as the founder of African nationalism. Julius Nyerere defined African nationalism as a new kind of nationalism and that it is "meaningless, dangerous, is anachronistic if it is not at the same time pan-Africanism. National Movement in Egypt Egypt became a British protectorate on 14th December 1914. During First World War agitation towards the British increased as all sects of the population united in their discontent. British rule caused Egypt’s involvement in the war to increase – 1.5 million Egyptians were Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 28 School of Distance Education conscripted in the Labour Corps and much of the country’s infrastructure was seized for the army – contributing to the dissatisfaction. Saad Zaghlul, a former education minister, founded the Wafd (literally meaning delegation) Party, or the Egyptian Delegation Party, during First World War. The party comprised of activists spanning political parties and classes, became prominent soon after the war. Their immediate goal was the end of the protectorate. Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points (in which he stressed all people had the right to self-determination) was a catalyst and inspiration for the nationalists. Consequently, two days after the November 11, 1918, armistice, Zaghlul, along with ‘Abd al-‘Aziz and ‘Ali Sha’rawi, requested that the High Commissioner Sir Reginald Wingate allow them to travel to London and officially present Egypt’s demand for independence. Previously, Wingate had been interested in meeting with the Wafd leaders, but the British authority overrode the possibility. Prime Minister Hussein Rushdi Pasha supported the right of the Wafd to present their case in London or Paris as well. Zaghlul also sent a telegram to Wilson asking for his support of Egyptian independence. On 13th January 1919, five days before the opening of the Paris Peace Conference, the Wafd party held a General Congress at the home of its member Hamad Pasha Basil. The British had continually refused them the right to go to London or Paris to talk with leaders and yet a Syrian delegation was allowed to attend the Peace Conference. Indignant, Zaghlul spoke at the General Congress about Egypt’s right to independence as championed by Muhammad Ali the Great and acknowledged by Europe in 1840. The party then sent cables to the London House of Commons and other political leaders, but they received no signs of support. The Wafdists planned to hold another mass meeting on January 31, but the British forces stopped them from assembling. Zaghlul was unable to publicly speak again until February 7, when he stole the platform at the end of a speech given by a European advisor to the Court of Appeals on criminal law. The British were becoming concerned over the Wafd Party’s growing support and audacity. Meanwhile, the Wafdists disseminated and collected thousands of signed powers of attorneys from Egyptian citizens, which were sent via telegram to the Sultani Diwan in support of Zaghlul. Wafdists also conducted another grass roots campaign, collecting signatures to allow Zaghlul and other leaders of the Wafdist party to petition for Egypt’s independence. On 8th March 1919, the British arrested Zaghlul and two other of the movement’s leaders, and expelled them to Malta, fearing the movement was gaining too much power. Protests and strikes erupted across the country, especially Cairo and Alexandria, sustaining until April and incorporating Egyptians of all backgrounds: men, women, Muslims, and Christians (Copts), intellectuals, shop owners, and tradesmen. On 9th March 1919, students at the Egyptian University and students at Al-Azhar demonstrated. (Initial protests in Cairo reportedly incurred some violence on behalf of both sides, and initial protests in the countryside allegedly also involved some violence). Over 10,000 students, workers, and professionals marched on Cairo’s Abdin Palace on March 15, where they were met by thousands more protesters discontent with British rule. The next day, the wives of the exiled leaders, Safia Zaghlul, Huda Sharawi, and Mana Fahmi Wissa, organized a march of thousands of women in traditional garb. They carried flags of the crescent and cross, representing Muslim and Christian (i.e. entire country) unification. These women of the upper class were important leaders in boycotting British goods and directing Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 29 School of Distance Education other protests throughout the campaign for independence. Transport workers, judges, and lawyers engaged in massive strikes as well. By the third week of sustained protests in March, Britain realized that the political climate was spiralling out of control and so began a series of changes in the country. They replaced High Commissioner Wingate, who was seen as too sympathetic to the Egyptian cause, with an Acting High Commissioner only to then appoint the acclaimed General Edmund Allenby as Special High Commissioner soon after on March 24. Allenby met with a representative group of the nationalists. They reached a negotiation in which the campaigners promised in writing to end the protests in exchange for the allowance of the exiled leaders to go to Paris. They were released on the April 7 and travelled to Paris on the 11th. Back in early April, Egyptians had started a strike. On the 2nd, a delegation of nationalists voted to begin a strike until: the Wafd party was recognized by the British as the official representative party of Egypt, the protectorate was abolished, and martial law was ended. The strike was meant to last for three days but was extended indefinitely. A general assembly was held days later on April 16 at al-Azhar – a historical and symbolic location for Egyptians – with all classes of society from across the country represented. The participants drafted a letter of the campaign’s demands. One day later, the strike begun in early April morphed into a general strike. Egyptians responsible for watering and sweeping the streets refused to carry out their JOBS, creating insufferable street conditions. The British were forced to use groups of prisoners for the task. The Rushdi government resigned on April 21, leading nationalists to believe there was finally recognition of Zaghlul’s right to rule and represent the national cause, and so they concluded the strike on April 23. Britain faced difficulty with the growing state of civil disobedience and sent Lord Alfred Milner, a statesmen and colonial administrator, to Egypt in December on a special diplomatic mission to assess the possibilities of maintaining British control in Egypt while placating the demand for independence. He arrived on December 7. In response, Wafdists and supporters boycotted his meetings, closed shops, struck, and pamphleted against cooperation with the ‘Milner Mission’. The Wafd party learned of the hotel where Milner was staying and was even able to control all the meetings he had with Egyptians, from the people he spoke with to the information they shared with him. More acts of civil disobedience followed during the Milner Mission: students demonstrated against the playing of British military music; 15,000 nationalists met at Alexandria’s mosque Abu’l-‘Abbas al-Mursi; ministers quit and lawyers went on strike, confounding the judicial system. Provincial councils, trade guilds, religious communities, and students all strategized against the British rule. In about three months, Milner was sent 1,130 messages from Egyptian nationalists. Milner left Egypt in March 1920. In his report of the situation, he advised that Britain abolish the protectorate and grant Egypt independence. He saw the hostile stance of the Egyptian people as incontrollable and believed Britain would not be able to continue to pursue its interests given such public opinion. Also due to the outpouring of public sentiment, Milner decided to include Zaghlul in negotiations in Paris. Private talks occurred during the summer of 1920. The meetings were a major accomplishment for the Wafdists and resulted in one change: the participants agreed to abolish the precondition of the protectorate in order to hold a negotiation over independence. On 4th April 1921, Zaghlul returned to Egypt. Allenby was convinced Zaghlul was a British puppet in their plans to create a new independent Egypt representing British interests. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 30 School of Distance Education Thus, he exiled Zaghlul in December – this time he was deported to the Seychelles. As with Zaghlul’s first exiling, Egyptians responded with strikes and protests across the country. On 28th February 1922 Britain declared limited independence for Egypt. They did not incorporate any of the opposition leaders in their negotiations, however, in order to maintain control of significant details. Most importantly, Britain kept control of Sudan and maintained its right to defend foreign interests in Egypt. A new Egyptian constitution was created in 1923, and in the 1924 election the Wafdists won a significant majority of seats in parliament. Zaghlul also became Prime Minister. The Wafd party was prominent politically until the early 1950s. Overall, the Egyptian struggle for independence from 1919-1922 is hailed as the first nonviolent mass protest in the modern Middle East. Gamal Abdel Nasser (15 January 1918-28 September 1970) Gamal Abdel Nasser (Gamal Abd El-Nasser) led Egypt to secular independence in the 1950s and held the office of president from 1956 until his death in 1970. Nasser was an army officer who led the military Junta that deposed Egypt's King Farouk in 1952. By the end of 1954 Nasser had replaced titular leader General Mohammed Neguib as president. Nasser is remembered for his ambitious attempt to modernize Egypt and create a secular Arab empire in northern Africa and the Middle East. He promoted the construction of the Aswan High Dam (completed the year he died) and challenged British, French and Israeli forces for control of the Suez Canal, nationalizing the canal in 1956. Nasser had a knack for turning military failure into political victory -- defeated by Israel in 1956 in the Sinai Peninsula and humiliated in 1967's Six Day War (June 5-11), he nonetheless emerged a hero in the Arab world and a player in the uneasy relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. He died in office in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Nationalist Movement in Algeria One of the longest struggles for freedom was launched in Algeria. The French occupation of Algeria had begun in 1830.After the Second World War, France was engaged in a protracted colonial war to retain her rule over Algeria. Unlike other French colonies, a large number of French colons (settlers) had settled in Algeria. In 1960, they numbered about a million. They controlled most of the economy and the administration of Algeria and were determined to hold on to their domination even when the people and government of France favoured a settlement. The situation was comparable to some other colonies, such as South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, where White settlers were for long totally opposed to any settlement which would end their domination. In 1954, the nationalist movement in Algeria gave a call for a popular uprising. Soon after, a full-scale war of national liberation began. The National Liberation Front (FLN) of Algeria set up its own liberation army which had its regular armed troops as well as guerrilla units. The French army in Algeria now numbered over 800,000 soldiers who resorted to large-scale atrocities and tortures. The FLN set up its Provisional Government which was recognised by many countries. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 31 School of Distance Education In 1958, a revolt by the French settlers and the French army in Algeria led to the overthrow of the Fourth Republic, as the French government since 1946 was called. General de Gaulle came to power in France and a new constitution creating the Fifth Republic came in force. The French settlers and the army in Algeria had hoped that the new government would support the war to maintain French rule in Algeria. However, when they discovered that de Gaulle favoured a settlement with the Algerians, they organised unsuccessful revolts. In March 1962, de Gaulle’s government opened negotiations with the FLN which led to a ceasefire in Algeria. An agreement was also reached on Algeria’s independence and the complete withdrawal of French forces from Algeria. A referendum was held in France on the question of Algerian independence in April 1962 and the French people voted overwhelmingly in favour of Algeria’s independence. In a similar referendum held on 1 July 1962, 99 per cent of the people in Algeria voted in favour of complete independence. On 3 July 1962, Algeria’s independence was recognised by France. About 1,500,000 Algerians had been killed by the French troops in the war of national liberation. Nationalist Movement in Congo In the 1950s, revolution was brewing in the Belgian Congo. Africans living in colonized countries felt the winds of change swirling as their mother countries in Europe struggled to stand back up after suffering often devastating defeats in the Second World War championing the ideal self determination and freedom while continuing to oppress their colonies. In the Congo in particular, there was a rather sudden rise of political parties, led by evolues, educated Congolese elites. They gave the Congolese a voice in creating institutional representation of what they wanted Congo to eventually become. One such party was the Parti Solidaire Africain, which pushed for immediate and complete independence from Belgium. Political parties gained power, but only after the people themselves had been protesting the Belgian rule in their own way. In the 1950s, the increased bureaucratization in the Belgian administration of the Congo actually decreased the level of control that the local administrators had over this territory, as they were cluttered with paper work and the pressure from their higher-ups to reduce the number of problematic incidents. Often, they simply began looking away when such incidents did occur, failing to report them, with the result of emboldening the Congolese masses. Change began to accelerate after the riots in Leopoldville, Congo’s capital, on 4 th January, 1959. Thirty-four Africans were killed in riots that broke out after members of the political party ABAKO, or Alliance des Bakongo, were not allowed to assemble by the Belgium administration. This spread and agitated already high discontent to new levels, as the rural populations began protesting Belgian rule like never before. Over the next few months, the Congolese felt empowered to resist. They ‘tested’ the Belgian administrators, daring them to punish the colonized people. And often, because of the bureaucratic restraints, little was done, only Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 32 School of Distance Education empowering the people more. Families did not show up for the census. Congolese would refuse to stand at attention before administrators, or would purposely respond slowly to them, or even speak back and engage in altercations or fights with Europeans. There was a tremendous psychological shift happening, one that prepared the Congolese for political parties to channel and organize that rage and newfound courage. The Parti Solidaire Africain only really started in May 1959, but was very successful in the rural communities, as they provided a legitimate and fully Congolese institution to organize and channel a source of national pride and unity, as well as opposition to the Belgium administration. They allied themselves with ABAKO, which was the other large political party at the time, though there were numerous other smaller groups as well. The Parti Solidaire Africain leadership sent propaganda teams to convince rural villagers to join, finding great enthusiasm for action against Belgium already there. As members of the party began to protest more and more, they also began to provide functions and services provided by the Belgian administration, such as healthcare, judicial systems, taxes, etc. The Parti Solidaire Africain became more and more like a quasi-government, stepping in to provide for the people, and uniting them in their membership and in a sense of belonging. There was a heavy emphasis placed by the Parti Solidaire Africain on ‘staying calm and not engaging in violence.’ The Parti Solidaire Africain leadership circulated many pamphlets and articles among the party elite arguing against any form of violence and vocally rebuked incidences of violence that did occasionally occur. In response to one such incident, Katshunga, a party leader, wrote, “I regret this act of violence, and you do so also, it should not recur because it is against our doctrine. Tell this, and re-tell it, to the children and to all those who are excited especially at such moments.” In 1959, the Belgian government decided to hold an election that would give Congolese puppets formal power over the governance of the Congo. The Belgian intention was to take the relevance from the radicals’ lips by appeasing the people with a moderate puppet government, and erase the calls for independence. Only men were allowed to vote. The Parti Solidaire Africain urged its members and the Congolese people to boycott the elections, by not registering and not participating in the election. This movement and protest was extremely successful for a variety of reasons. The Parti Solidaire Africain was in contact with the Belgium government and did have some negotiations, as they worked out the terms and process of the protest. On 27 th September 1959, Parti Solidaire Africain and ABAKO sent a joint memo to the Belgian government explaining that they would boycott the elections in December, “as long as the electoral procedures remain undemocratic”. The Belgian government continued with the elections, not only underestimating the clout the political parties, but also the passion of the people. Many people were tempted by the idea of an election that promised genuine self-governance, so the Parti Solidaire Africain had to work extremely hard explaining the deception. While Belgium tried at first to arrest Congolese men who tried to avoid registering for the election, they soon found that it was difficult to catch everyone, since so many Congolese men were complicit in the protest. The Belgium administration issued the threat of seven days in prison and a fine of 500 francs. Although many men were arrested, especially in the more rural areas, the boycott persisted and was enormously successful. Approximately 5.27 % of the 397,086 people in Bas-Congo district voted, and 1.2% of the 1,157,112 in the Kwilu district. In some areas there were much higher rates of participation, ranging from 30 to 60%, but these numbers were Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 33 School of Distance Education primarily limited to areas with large European populations or where ABAKO and Parti Solidaire Africain did not have as much influence. The overwhelming success of the boycott proved to the Belgian administration that Congo was ungovernable for them. Deciding against a bloody and possibly drawn out and politically costly affair to make the Congolese comply, like the war in Algeria, the administration chose to cut the increasingly unprofitable colony. Moreover, international pressure was against them, as the United States was pressuring European nations to give up their colonies, aligned with the idea of self-determination. On 20th January 1960, the Belgian government invited members of 13 different political parties – 96 different Congolese – to the month-long Brussels Round Table talks. At the talks the Congolese demanded immediate independence while the Belgian government preferred a process spanning three to four years. Putting up a united front and completely unwilling to back down, the Congolese representatives got their demand, and the date for Congo’s independence was set: June 30, 1960. Free elections for the government were set for May. However, a rift between the leadership and the masses was exposed once the unifying desire for independence was achieved. The Parti Solidaire Africain broke along the true disparity of power and influence that existed all along between the elites and the masses and between different ethnic groups. After the May 1960 elections, the Parti Solidaire Africain began to fall apart along issues of ideology, power differences, and ethnicity. owever, everything was wiped clean when the military, the Force Publique, rebelled and mutinied against the new government and threw the Congo into complete crisis on every level. (Global Non Violent Action Data Base) African National Congress African National Congress (ANC), the oldest black (now multiracial) political organization in South Africa; founded in 1912. Prominent in its opposition to apartheid, the organization began as a nonviolent civil-rights group. In the 1940s and 50s it joined with other groups in promoting strikes and civil disobedience among the emerging urban black workforce. The ANC was banned in 1960 and the following year initiated guerrilla attacks. In 1964 its leader, Nelson Mandela, was sentenced to life in prison, and the leadership was forced into exile. Although outlawed, the ANC became the popularly acknowledged vehicle of mass resistance to apartheid in the late 1970s and the 1980s; the training of ANC guerrillas continued in neighbouring countries. Following the end of the ban on the ANC and the release of Mandela in 1990, many of its leaders returned from exile, and the ANC negotiated with the government for black enfranchisement and an end to apartheid. In the early 1990s there were violent clashes between supporters of the ANC and Inkatha (see Buthelezi, Mangosuthu Gatsha). The ANC became a registered political party in 1994 in advance of the first South African elections open to citizens of all races. It won over 60% of the vote in the elections, and Mandela was elected president of South Africa; the ANC has continued to be the dominant party in South African politics in the years since. Thabo Mbeki succeeded Mandela as head of the ANC in 1997 and as president of South Africa in 1999. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 34 School of Distance Education Tensions within the ANC, largely as a result of the failure of South Africa's economic growth to benefit poorer South Africans, resulted in Mbeki's loss of the party leadership to Jacob Zuma in 2007 and his resignation as South Africa's president in 2008. ANC deputy leader Kgalema Motlanthe was elected South Africa's interim president. Following Mbeki's resignation as president, some of his ANC supporters left the party and formed the Congress of the People, but the ANC remained the nation's dominant party. Zuma succeeded Motlanthe as South Africa's president in 2009. Nelson Mandela: Struggle against Apartheid Occupation: President of South Africa and Activist Born: July 18, 1918 in Mvezo, South Africa Died: December 5, 2013 in Johannesburg, South Africa Best known for: Serving 27 years in prison as a protest against apartheid Nelson Mandela was a civil rights leader in South Africa. He fought against apartheid, a system where non-white citizens were segregated from whites and did not have equal rights. He served a good portion of his life in prison for his protests, but became a symbol for his people. Later he would become president of South Africa. Where did Nelson Mandela grow up? Nelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918 in Mvezo, South Africa. His birth name is Rolihlahla. He got the nickname Nelson from a teacher in school. Nelson was a member of Thimbu royalty and his father was chief of the city of Mvezo. He attended school and later college at the College of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand. At Witwatersrand, Mandela got his law degree and would meet some of his fellow activists against apartheid. What did Nelson Mandela do? Nelson Mandela became a leader in the African National Congress (ANC). At first he pushed hard for the congress and the protesters to follow Mohandas Gandhi's non-violence approach. At one point he started to doubt that this approach would work and started up an armed branch of the ANC. He planned to bomb certain buildings, but only the buildings. He wanted to make sure that no one would be hurt. He was classified as a terrorist by the South African government and sent to prison. Mandela would spend the next 27 years in prison. His prison sentence brought international visibility to the anti-apartheid movement. He was finally released through international pressure in 1990. Once released from prison, Nelson continued his campaign to end apartheid. His hard work and life long effort paid off when all races were allowed to vote in the 1994 election. Nelson Mandela won the election and became president of South Africa. There were several times during the process where violence threatened to break out. Nelson was a strong force in keeping the calm and preventing a major civil war . How long was Nelson Mandela in prison? He spent 27 years in prison. He refused to bend on his principals in order to be released and stated that he would die for his ideals. He wanted all people of all races to have equal rights in South Africa. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 35 School of Distance Education Globalisation Globalisation is a process of deeper economic integration between countries and regions of the world. The OECD defines globalization as “The geographic dispersion of industrial and service activities, for example research and development, sourcing of inputs, production and distribution, and the cross-border networking of companies, for example through joint ventures and the sharing of assets." Characteristics of globalisation 1. Greater trade in goods and services both between nations and within regions 2. An increase in transfers of capital including the expansion of foreign direct investment (FDI) by trans-national companies (TNCs) and the rising influence of sovereign wealth funds 3. The development of global brands that serve markets in higher and lower income countries 4. Spatial division of labour– for example out-sourcing and off shoring of production and support services as production supply-chains has become more international. As an example, the iPhone is part of a complicated global supply chain. The product was conceived and designed in Silicon Valley; the software was enhanced by software engineers working in India. Most iPhones are assembled / manufactured in China and Taiwan by TNCs such as FoxConn 5.High levels of labour migration within and between countries 6.New nations joining the world trading system. China and India joined the WTO in 1991, Russia joined the WTO in 2012 7.A fast changing shift in the balance of economic and financial power from developed to emerging economies and markets – i.e. a change in the centre of gravity in the world economy 8.Increasing spending on investment, innovation and infrastructure across large parts of the world 9.Globalisation is a process of making the world economy more inter-dependent 10.Many of the industrializing countries are winning a rising share of world trade and their economies are growing faster than in richer developed nations especially after the global financial crisis (GFC) Globalisation to localisation? Among the main drivers of globalisation are the following: Containerisation – the costs of ocean shipping have come down, due to containerization, bulk shipping, and other efficiencies. The lower cost of shipping Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 36 School of Distance Education products around the global economy helps to bring prices in the country of manufacture closer to prices in the export market, and makes markets more contestable in an international sense. Technological change – reducing the cost of transmitting and communicating information – sometimes known as “the death of distance" – a key factor behind trade in knowledge products using web technology Economies of scale: Many economists believe that there has been an increase in the minimum efficient scale (MES) associated with particular industries. If the MES is rising, a domestic market may be regarded as too small to satisfy the selling needs of these industries. Opening up of global financial markets: This has included the removal of capital controls in many countries facilitating foreign direct investment. Differences in tax systems: The desire of corporations to benefit from lower unit labour costs and other favourable factor endowments abroad and develop and exploit fresh comparative advantages in production has encouraged countries to adjust their tax systems to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) Less protectionism - old forms of non-tariff protection such as import licencing and foreign exchange controls have gradually been dismantled. Borders have opened and average tariff levels have fallen – that said in the last few years there has been a rise in protectionism as countries have struggled to achieve growth after the global financial crisis. The table below tracks average import tariffs since 1991. Average Most Favoured Nation Applied Import Tariffs (%)199120012009 Developing Countries (134 countries) 27.7 13.5 9.9 Low Income Developing Countries (42 countries) 44.4 14.4 11.8 Source: World Bank The breakdown of the Doha trade talks a few years back dashed hopes of a globally based multi-lateral reduction in import tariffs and other trade barriers. In its place there has been a rising number of bi-lateral trade deals and the emergence of regional trading blocs such as NAFTA, MECOSUR and plans for a new Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) Globalization no longer necessarily requires a business to own or have a physical presence in terms of either owning production plants or land in other countries, or even exports and imports. Many businesses use licensing and franchising to help expand their overseas operations. Multinational companies A multinational corporation/company is an organisation doing business in more than one country. 'In other words it is an organisation or enterprise carrying on business in not only the country where it is registered but also in several other countries. It may also be termed as International Corporation, global giant and transnational corporation. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 37 School of Distance Education According to the United Nations a multinational corporation is "an enterprise which owns or controls production or service facilities outside the country in which it is based". In the words of W H Moreland, "Multinational Corporations or Companies are those enterprises whose management, ownership and controls are spread in more than one foreign country". Thus a multinational company carries on business operations in two or more countries. Its headquarters are located in one country (home country) but its activities are spread over in other countries (host countries). MNC's may engage in various activities like exporting, importing, manufacturing in different countries. It may also lend its patents, licences and managerial services to firms in host countries. Characteristics of Multinational Companies (MNCs) The distinctive features of multinational companies are as follows. 1. Large Size: A multinational company is generally big in size. Some of the multinational companies own and control assets worth billions of dollars. Their annual sales turnover is more than the gross national product of many small countries. 2. Worldwide operations: A multinational corporation carries on business in more than one country. Multinational corporations such as Coco cola have branches in as many as seventy countries around the world. 3. International management: The management of multinational companies are international in character. It operates on the basis of best possible alternative available anywhere in the world. Its local subsidiaries are managed generally by the nationals of the host country. For example the management of Hindustan Lever lies with Indians. The parent company Unilever is in The United States of America. 4. Mobility of resources: The operation of multinational company involves the mobility of capital, technology, entrepreneurship and other factors of production across the territories. 5. Integrated activities: A multinational company is usually a complete organisation manufacturing, marketing, research and development and other facilities. comprising 6. Several forms: A multinational company may operate in host countries in several ways i.e., branches, subsidiaries, franchise, joint ventures. Turn key projects. Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 38 School of Distance Education Aims Multinational companies make investments in different countries with the following aims. (a) To take tax benefits in host countries; (b) To exploit the natural resources of the host country; (c) To take advantage of Government concessions in host country; (d) To mitigate the impact of regulations in the home country; (e) To reduce cost of production by making use of cheap labour and low transportation expenses in the host country. (f) To gain dominance in foreign markets; (g) To expand activities vertically. SYLLABUS MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM AD 1500: HIS4C02 NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES Module I Post War Developments The Super Powers – Cold War – containment of Communism – Marshal Plan – Truman Doctrine – Warsaw Pact Military Alliances – NATO – SEATO – Baghdad Pact – Cominform Berlin after 1945 – the importance of Berlin Wall – Re-unification Module II Contemporary South Asia Neo-colonialism in South-Asian countries – Korean War – Vietnam War The Political Unrest in West Asia – the creation of Israel – Arab- Israeli wars – Suez crisis – P.L.O – al-Fatah – Hamas The Gulf Wars – Iran- Iraq War of 1980 – The Kuwait War of 1990 – Attack on World Trade Centre in U.S.A – Occupation of Afghanistan Module III Changing World Emergence of People’s Republic of China – Mao-Tse-Tung Nationalist movement in Africa – Egypt – Nasar – Algeria – Congo – Forces against African Unity – African National Congress – Mandela – Struggle against Apartheid Globalization – Multi National Companies BOOKS FOR STUDY Module I 1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present 2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times 3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System 4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century 5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945 6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins 7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History 8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes Module II Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 39 School of Distance Education 1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present 2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times 3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System 4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century 5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945 6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins 7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History 8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes Module III 1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present 2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times 3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System 4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century 5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945 6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins 7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History 8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes 9. Harold M Vinacke, A History of Far East in Modern Times ================================================================ Modern World History from AD 1500 Page 40