Download modern world history from ad 1500

MODERN WORLD HISTORY
FROM AD 1500:
HIS4C02
NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND
RESPONSES
IV SEMESTER
COMPLEMENTARY COURSE
OF
BA ENGLISH/POLITICAL SCIENCE
(2014 Admission onwards)
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
954
School of Distance Education
CALICUT UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
STUDY MATERIAL
IV SEMESTER
COMPLEMENTARY OF BA ENGLISH/POLITICAL SCIENCE
MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM AD 1500:
HIS4C02 NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
Prepared by:
Dr.N.PADMANABHAN
Associate Professor&Head
P.G.Department of History
C.A.S.College, Madayi
P.O.Payangadi-RS-670358
Dt.Kannur-Kerala
Scrutinised by
Ashraf koyilothan Kandiyil
Chairman, BOS- History (UG)
Settings & Lay out: SDE
@
Reserved
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MODULE
CONTENTS
PAGE
I
POST WAR DEVELOPMENTS
3
II
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
13
III
CHANGING WORLD
25
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MODULE-I
POST WAR DEVELOPMENTS
The Super Powers-Cold War
After the Second World War, the USA and USSR became two Super Powers. One
nation tried to reduce the power of other. Indirectly the competition between the Super
Powers led to the Cold War. Then America took the leadership of all the Capitalist Countries.
Soviet Russia took the leadership of all the Communist Countries. As a result of which both
stood as rivals to each other.
Cold War:
The Cold War was a period of economic, political and military tension between the
United States and Soviet Union from 1945 to 1991. Following the end of the Second World
War, complications arose centring on the shifting of international power. The Soviet Union
wanted to acquire additional territory while the United States attempted to limit the gains
desired by the Soviets. This battle of ideologies resulted in increased national security,
diplomatic tension and proxy wars between the two powerful nations.
The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the Western
World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The west was led by the United States
and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two countries became known as
superpowers. Although the two superpowers never officially declared war on each other, they
fought indirectly in proxy wars, the arms race, and the space race.
In the graphic language of Hartman, “Cold War is a state of tension between countries
in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen it and weaken the other by falling
short by actual war”.
In fact, Cold War is a kind of verbal war which is fought through newspapers,
magazines, radio and other propaganda methods. It is a propaganda to which a great power
resorts against the other power. It is a sort of diplomatic war.
The Cold War began not too long after World War II ended in 1945. Although, the Soviet
Union was an important member of the Allied Powers, there was great distrust between the Soviet
Union and the rest of the Allies. The Allies were concerned with the brutal leadership of Joseph
Stalin as well as the spread of communism. The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of the
Soviet Union in 1991.
Origin of Cold War:
There is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the origin of the Cold War In 1941
when Hitler invaded Russia, Roosevelt the President of USA sent armaments to Russia. It is
only because the relationship between Roosevelt and Stalin was very good. But after the
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defeat of Germany, when Stalin wanted to implement Communist ideology in Poland,
Hungary, Bulgaria and Rumania, at that time England and America suspected Stalin.
Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England in his ‘Fulton Speech’ on 5 March
1945 said that Soviet Russia was covered by an Iron Curtain. It led Stalin to think deeply. As
a result of which suspicion became wider between Soviet Russia and western countries and
thus the Cold War took birth.
Causes of the Cold War:
Various causes are responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War. At first, the
difference between Soviet Russia and USA led to the Cold War. The United States of
America could not tolerate the Communist ideology of Soviet Russia. On the other hand,
Russia could not accept the dominance of United States of America upon the other European
Countries.
Secondly, the Race of Armament between the two super powers served another cause
for the Cold War. After the Second World War, Soviet Russia had increased its military
strength which was a threat to the Western Countries. So America started to manufacture the
Atom bomb, Hydrogen bomb and other deadly weapons. The other European Countries also
participated in this race. So, the whole world was divided into two power blocs and paved the
way for the Cold War.
Thirdly, the Ideological Difference was another cause for the Cold War. When Soviet
Russia spread Communism, at that time America propagated Capitalism. This propaganda
ultimately accelerated the Cold War.
Fourthly, Russian Declaration made another cause for the Cold War. Soviet Russia
highlighted Communism in mass-media and encouraged the labour revolution. On the other
hand, America helped the Capitalists against the Communism. So it helped to the growth of
Cold War.
Fifthly, the Nuclear Programme of America was responsible for another cause for the
Cold War. After the bombardment of America on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet Russia got
afraid for her existence. So, it also followed the same path to combat America. This led to the
growth of Cold War.
Lastly, the Enforcement of Veto by Soviet Russia against the western countries made
them to hate Russia. When the western countries put forth any view in the Security Council of
the UNO, Soviet Russia immediately opposed it through veto. So western countries became
annoyed in Soviet Russia which gave birth to the Cold War.
Various Phases of the Cold War:
The Cold War did not occur in a day. It passed through several phases.
First Phase (1945-1949):
In this phase America and Soviet Russia disbelieved each other. America always tried
to control the Red Regime in Russia. Without any hesitation Soviet Russia established
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Communism by destroying democracy in the Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary,
Yugoslavia and other Eastern European Countries.
In order to reduce Russia’s hegemony, America helped Greece and Turkey by
following Truman Doctrine which came into force on 12 March 1947. According to Marshall
Plan which was declared on 5 June, 1947 America gave financial assistance to Western
European Countries.
In this phase, non withdrawal of army from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin blockade
etc. made the cold was more furious. After the formation of NATO in 1949, the Cold War
took a halt.
Second Phase (1949-1953):
In this phase a treaty was signed between Australia, New-Zeland and America in
September, 1957 which was known as ANZUS. America also signed a treaty with Japan on 8
September, 1951. At that time by taking armaments from Russia and army from China, North
Korea declared war against South Korea.
Then with the help of UNO, America sent military aid to South Korea. However, both
North Korea and South Korea signed peace treaty in 1953 and ended the war. In order to
reduce the impact of Soviet Communism, America spent a huge amount of dollar in
propaganda against Communism. On the other hand, Soviet Russia tried to be equal with
America by testing atom bomb.
Third Phase (1953-1957):
Now United States of America formed SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet
Russia’s influence. In 1955 America formed MEDO in Middle East. Within a short span of
time, America gave military assistance to 43 countries and formed 3300 military bases around
Soviet Russia. At that time, the Vietnamese War started on 1955.
To reduce the American Power, Russia signed WARSAW PACT in 1955. Russia also
signed a defence pact with 12 Countries. Germany was divided into Federal Republic of
Germany which was under the American control where as German Democratic Republic was
under Soviet Russia. In 1957 Soviet Russia included Sputnik in her defence programme.
In 1953 Stalin died and Khrushchev became the President of Russia. In 1956 an
agreement was signed between America and Russia regarding the Suez Crisis. America
agreed not to help her allies like England and France. In fact West Asia was saved from a
great danger.
Fourth Phase (1957-1962):
In 1959 the Russian President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America. Both
the countries were annoyed for U-2 accident and for Berlin Crisis. In 13 August 1961, Soviet
Russia made a Berlin Wall of 25 Kilometres in order to check the immigration from eastern
Berlin to Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war.
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This incident created an atmosphere of conversation between American President
Kennedy and Russian President Khrushchev. America assured Russia that she would not
attack Cuba and Russia also withdrew missile station from Cuba.
Fifth Phase (1962-1969):
The Fifth Phase which began from 1962 also marked a mutual suspicion between USA
and USSR. There was a worldwide concern demanding ban on nuclear weapons. In this
period Hot Line was established between the White House and Kremlin. This compelled both
the parties to refrain from nuclear war. In spite of that the Vietnam problem and the Problem
in Germany kept Cold War between USA and USSR in fact.
Sixth Phase (1969-1978):
This phase commencing from 1969 was marked by DETENTE between USA and
USSR- the American President Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played a vital role for
putting an end to the Cold War. The SALT of 1972, the summit Conference on Security’ of
1975 in Helsinki and Belgrade Conference of 1978 brought America and Russia closer.
In 1971, American Foreign Secretary Henry Kissinger paid a secret visit to China to
explore the possibilities of reapproachment with China. The American move to convert Diego
Garcia into a military base was primarily designed to check the Soviet presence in the Indian
Ocean. During the Bangladesh crisis of 1971 and the Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two super
powers extended support to the opposite sides.
Last Phase (1979-1987):
In this phase certain changes were noticed in the Cold War. That is why historians call
this phase as New Cold War. In 1979, the American President Carter and Russian President
Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in 1979 the prospects of mitigating Cold War were marred by
sudden development in Afghanistan.
Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia (1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues
brought success to Russia which was unbearable for America. American President Carter’s
Human Rights and Open Diplomacy were criticised by Russia. The SALT II was not ratified
by the US Senate. In 1980 America boycotted the Olympic held at Moscow.
In 1983, Russia withdrew from a talk on missile with America. In 1984 Russia
boycotted the Olympic game held at Los-Angeles. The Star War of the American President
Ronald Regan annoyed Russia. In this way the ‘New Cold War’ between America and Russia
continued till 1987.
Result of the Cold War:
The Cold War had far-reaching implications in the international affairs. At first, it
gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in a mad race for the manufacture of more
sophisticated armaments. Various alliances like NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, CENTO,
ANZUS etc. were formed only to increase world tension.
Secondly, Cold War rendered the UNO ineffective because both super powers tried to
oppose the actions proposed by the opponent. The Korean Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis,
Vietnam War etc. were the bright examples in this direction.
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Thirdly, due to the Cold War, a Third World was created. A large number of nations
of Africa, Asia and Latin America decided to keep away from the military alliances of the
two super powers. They liked to remain neutral. So, Non-Alignments Movement became the
direct outcome of the Cold War.
Fourthly, Cold War was designed against mankind. The unnecessary expenditure in
the armament production created a barrier against the progress of the world and adversely
affected a country and prevented improvement in the living standards of the people.
Fifthly, the principle ‘Whole World as a Family’, was shattered on the rock of
frustration due to the Cold War. It divided the world into two groups which was not a healthy
sign for mankind.
Sixthly, The Cold War created an atmosphere of disbelief among the countries. They
questioned among themselves how unsafe were they under Russia or America.
Finally, The Cold War disturbed the World Peace. The alliances and counter-alliances
created a disturbing atmosphere. It was a curse for the world. Though Russia and America,
being super powers, came forward to solve the international crisis, yet they could not be able
to establish a perpetual peace in the world.
Containment of Communism
This is a foreign policy strategy created and executed by the US after WWII founding
its first key purpose in the Truman Doctrine of 1947. President Harry Truman warned of the
evils of communism that threatened the democratic freedom of its people which like the US,
the Soviet Union wanted a world modelled on their own country’s society and values. Even
though the Soviet claimed they provided all citizens with economic and social rights, the US
saw communism as a slave state that control the private life and thoughts of its citizens. A
threat that violated both democratic rights and civil liberties of its citizens and therefore
required the continued efforts of America to make sure that it did not spread to the United
States and other nations that have not yet moved politically towards Soviet Union
communism. As such, this Policy of Containment stated that the US would try to stop
(contain) the spread of Communism by creating strategic alliances or support to help
weak countries to resist Soviet advances.
This is a containment strategy plan that the U.S. used in the Cold War to prevent
communism country, the Soviet Union from spreading Communism by providing either
military support, economic and/or technical assistance to non-communist countries. Its aimed
by so doing was to contain the domino effect of the growing influence and power of the
Soviet Union over other non-communist country’s political system from moving towards
communism within its existing limits. Thus, blocking the expansion of the USSR and
communism. It was originally devised by US diplomat and historian George F. Kennan, best
known as “the father of containment”. His writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the
U.S. foreign policy of containment during the Truman Administration.
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The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan was a U.S.-sponsored program implemented following the Second
World War to aid European countries that had been destroyed as a result of the war.
Following World War II, the United States needed to formulate a plan to help rebuild wartattered Europe, and help create a stronger economic environment for Europe as a whole.
The plan was first laid out by U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall during an
address at Harvard University in 1947, and was subsequently authorized by Congress as the
European Recovery Program (ERP). The Marshall Plan gave over $13 billion in aid to
European nations and was a key in revitalizing the post-war economies of these nations. The
plan focused on modernizing both business and industrial practices across Europe, while
reducing trade barriers between European nations and the United States. By 1952 U.S.
funding ended, the economies of all the European recipients’ surpassed pre-war levels and the
plan was considered a success.
Truman Doctrine
The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy to stop Soviet imperialism
during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March
12, 1947 when he pledged to contain Soviet threats to Greece and Turkey. No American
military force was involved; instead Congress appropriated a free gift of financial aid to
support the economies and the militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman
doctrine implied American support for other nations threatened by Soviet communism. The
Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the
formation of NATO: a full-fledged military alliance that is in effect to this day. Historians
often use Truman's speech to date the start of the Cold War.
Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free
people who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."
Truman reasoned, because these "totalitarian regimes" coerced "free peoples", they
represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United States.
Truman made the plea amid the crisis of the Greek Civil War (1946–49). He argued that if
Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they would inevitably
fall to communism with grave consequences throughout the region. Because Turkey and
Greece were historic rivals, it was necessary to help both equally, even though the threat to
Greece was more immediate. Eric Foner argues, the Truman Doctrine "set a precedent for
American assistance to anticommunist regimes throughout the world, no matter how
undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the
Soviet Union."
For years Britain had supported Greece, but was now near bankruptcy and was forced
to radically reduce its involvement. In February 1947, Britain formally requested the United
States take over its role in supporting the Greeks and their government. The policy won the
support of Republicans who controlled Congress and involved sending $400 million in
American money, but no military forces, to the region. The effect was to end the Communist
threat, and in 1952 both Greece and Turkey joined NATO, a military alliance that guaranteed
their protection.
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The Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War
policy throughout Europe and around the world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the
Soviet from détente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of Soviet expansion
as advocated by diplomat George Kennan. It avoided the policy of rollback because it
implicitly tolerated the previous Soviet takeovers in Eastern Europe.
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (also known as the Warsaw Treaty Organization) was a political and
military alliance established on May 14, 1955 between the Soviet Union and several Eastern
European countries. The Soviet Union formed this alliance as a counterbalance to the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a collective security alliance concluded between the
United States, Canada and Western European nations in 1949.
The Warsaw Pact supplemented existing agreements. Following World War II, the
Soviet Union had concluded bilateral treaties with each of the East European states except for
East Germany, which was still part of the Soviet occupied-territory of Germany. When the
Federal Republic of Germany entered NATO in early May 1955, the Soviets feared the
consequences of a strengthened NATO and a rearmed West Germany and hoped that the
Warsaw Treaty Organization could both contain West Germany and negotiate with NATO as
an equal partner. Soviet leadership also noted that civil unrest was on the rise in Eastern
European countries and determined that a unified, multilateral political and military alliance
would tie Eastern European capitals more closely to Moscow.
The original signatories to the Warsaw Treaty Organization were the Soviet Union,
Albania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and the German Democratic
Republic. Although the members of the Warsaw Pact pledged to defend each other if one or
more of them came under attack, emphasized non-interference in the internal affairs of its
members, and supposedly organized itself around collective decision-making, the Soviet
Union ultimately controlled most of the Pact’s decisions. The Soviet Union also used the Pact
to contain popular dissent in its European satellites, for example in Hungary in 1956, in
Czechoslovakia in 1968, and in Poland in 1981.
By the 1980s, the Warsaw Treaty Organization was beset by problems related to the
economic slowdown in all Eastern European countries. By the late 1980s political changes in
most of the member states made the Pact virtually ineffectual. In September 1990, East
Germany left the Pact in preparation for reunification with West Germany. By October,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland had withdrawn from all Warsaw Pact military
exercises. The Warsaw Pact officially disbanded in March and July of 1991 following the
dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Military Alliances
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington on April 4, 1949 establishing the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. This political and military alliance is designed to
promote the stability of the North Atlantic area and to safeguard the freedom of its peoples,
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based on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. Canada has
been a member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization since its inception.
SEATO
The Southeast
Asia
Treaty
Organization (SEATO)
was
an international
organization for collective defence in Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defence
Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines. The formal
institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners
in Bangkok, Thailand The organization's headquarters were also in Bangkok. Eight members
joined the organization.
Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is
generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of
the SEATO military; however, SEATO-funded cultural and educational programs left longstanding effects in Southeast Asia. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many
members lost interest and withdrew.
Baghdad Pact
The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), originally known as the Baghdad
Pact or the Middle East Treaty Organization(METO) was formed in 1955
by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. It was dissolved in 1979.
U.S. pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the negotiations
leading to the agreement, although the United States could not initially participate. John
Foster Dulles, who was involved in the negotiations, ascribed this to "the pro-lobby and the
difficulty of obtaining Congressional Approval." Others said the reason was "for purely
technical reasons of budgeting procedures." In 1958, the United States joined the military
committee of the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold
War alliances. The organization's headquarters were located in Baghdad (Iraq) in 1955–1958
and in Ankara (Turkey) in 1958–1979. Cyprus was also an important location for CENTO
due to its positioning within the Middle East and the British Sovereign Base Areas situated on
the island.
Cominform
Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953. Although he had
succeeded in establishing communist governments in all of Eastern Europe, he wanted to
increase his control over each individual state. For this reason, he founded Cominform
(Communist Information Bureau) in the year 1947 with the purpose of bringing together the
European communist parties and coordinates their actions under the guidance of the Soviet.
The roles of Cominform included publishing propaganda that enhanced the solidarity of
communist parties internationally. It was dissolved in 1956.
Berlin after 1945
Berlin, and what went on in Berlin from 1945 to 1950, seemed to symbolise all that
the Cold War stood for. Berlin was to become the centre of the Cold War again in later years
with the building of the Wall. The victorious forces at the end of the war divided Germany
into four zones. They also divided Berlin into four zones. Each of the victorious nations
controlled one zone and one sector of Berlin.
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The Allies (Britain, America and France) ran their zones differently to the areas
controlled by Russia. Russia wanted to keep Germany as weak as possible to ensure that
Russia itself was never attacked again by Germany. They also took from their zones whatever
was needed by Russia so that it could be used in Russia itself. This way, Russia could start to
rebuild itself at Germany’s expense and the Germans would be kept poor.
The Allies believed that a strong Germany would enable democracy to prosper after
the years of Nazi dictatorship. They also believed that Europe needed a strong Germany so
that their economies would prosper. To enable their zones to work more effectively, the
British, Americans and French decided to amalgamate their zones into one unit and
introduced into that one unit a new currency – the Deutschmark. All four occupying forces
had agreed to inform one another if changes were going to be made in their respective zones.
The Allies failed to do with regards to Russia.
The biggest problem for Stalin was that the German people of the Russian controlled
block could not see the prosperity that was occurring in the other zones – but they could see
the difference in Berlin as three of the zones in Berlin were controlled by the Allies and
prospered accordingly. Therefore, to Stalin, the Allies being in Berlin was the problem. He
needed to remove them from Berlin and have a Russian controlled city as opposed to a
segment of that city.
Stalin could not forcibly remove the Allies – he still had to reckon with America
having the A-bomb and Russia did not in 1948. He therefore ordered the closing of all rail
lines, canals and roads that entered West Berlin through the Russian sector. This cut off
supplies of food and fuel. The only way for the Allies to supply their sectors in Berlin was to
fly in supplies. Stalin would not dare to shoot down Allied planes with America’s atomic
supremacy. Flights into Berlin lasted for 11 months and when it became clear that the Allies
would stand firm, Stalin gave in. The Allies remained in their sectors in Berlin.
The Importance of Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall, built in August of 1961, was s physical symbol of the political and
emotional divisions of Germany. The Wall was built because of a long lasting suspicion
between the Soviet Union on one side and Western Europe and the United States on the other.
For 28 years the Berlin Wall separated friends, families, and a nation. After WWII was over
Germany was divided into four parts. The United States, Great Britain, and France controlled
the three divisions that were formed in the Western half and the Eastern half was controlled
by the Soviet Republic. The Western sections eventually united to make a federal republic,
while the Eastern half became communist
.
Even though Berlin lay deep within the Soviet sector, the Allies thought it would be
the best to divide this capital. Therefore Berlin was also divided into four parts. Since the
Soviet Union was in control of the eastern half of Germany, they made East Berlin the capital
of East Germany. The other three counties were each in control of a small part of what was to
be West Germany. The Allies decided that they would come together to form one country out
of their three divided parts. Those three divided parts formed West Germany. After all the
land was divided the Soviet Union controlled East Germany. Just like the Soviet Union, the
economy in East Germany was struggling to get back on its feet after the war. While West
Berlin became a lively urban area like many American cities.
In conclusion Berlin Wall was an important milestone in the growth of the Cold War.
It was the expansion that represented the thinking of a determined Communist system.
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Western Capitalism, which was more powerful, eventually defeated the system. The massive
wall that did so much harm to a country was finally destroyed, and the people of Germany
could now live the way they all wanted to live. They could live the life of freedom. Since the
fall of the Berlin Wall East Germany has went through a lot of changes and it still is not easy
for all of the people in East Germany. But no matter how hard it is for the people of East
Germany now, it is better than being alone and separated from their families, friends and rest
of Europe.
Re-unification
The German reunification was the process in 1990 in which the German Democratic
Republic(GDR/East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West
Germany) to form the reunited nation of Germany, and when Berlin reunited into a single
city, as provided by its then Grundgesetz constitution Article 23. The end of the unification
process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October (German Unity
Day)
The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungary's
border fence opened a hole in the Iron Curtain. It caused an exodus of thousands of East
Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The Peaceful Revolution, a
series of protests by East Germans, led to the GDR's first free elections on 18 March 1990,
and to the negotiations between the GDR and FRG that culminated in a Unification
Treaty. Other negotiations between the GDR and FRG and the four occupying powers
produced the so-called "Two Plus Four Treaty" (Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect
to Germany) granting full sovereignty to a unified German state, whose two parts had
previously still been bound by a number of limitations stemming from their post-World War
II status as occupied regions.
The united Germany is considered to be the enlarged continuation of the Federal
Republic and not a successor state. As such, it retained all of West Germany's memberships in
international organizations including the European Community (later the European Union)
and NATO, while relinquishing membership in the Warsaw Pact and other international
organizations to which only East Germany belonged.
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MODULE-II
CONTEMPORARY SOUTH ASIA
Korean War
The Korean War was fought between South Korea and communist North Korea. It was
the first major conflict of the Cold War as the Soviet Union supported North Korea and the
United States supported South Korea. The war ended with little resolution. The countries are
still divided today and North Korea is still ruled by a communist regime.
Dates: June 25, 1950 to July 27, 1953
Leaders:
The leader and Prime Minister of North Korea was Kim Il-sung. North Korea's chief
commander was Choi Yong-kun.
The President of South Korea was Syngman Rhee. The South Korean Army was led
by Chung II-kwon. The United States Army and United Nations forces were lead by General
Douglas MacArthur. The US President at the start of the war was Harry Truman. Dwight D.
Eisenhower was president by the end of the war.
Countries Involved
Supporting North Korea was the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.
Supporting South Korea was the United States, Great Britain, and the United Nations.
Before the War
Before World War II the Korean Peninsula had been a part of Japan. After the war it
needed to be divided up. The Northern half went under the control of the Soviet Union and
the Southern half under the control of the United States. The two sides were divided at the
38th parallel.
Eventually two separate states formed with North Korea forming
a communist government with Kim Il-sung as leader and South Korea forming
a capitalist government under the rule of Syngman Rhee.
The two sides did not get along and there were constant skirmishes and battles along
the border at the 38th parallel. Attempts were being made to negotiate a unified country, but
they were going nowhere.
North Korea Attacks
On June 25, 1950 North Korea invaded South Korea. The South Korean Army fled and
forces from the United Nations came to help out. The United States provided the majority of
the United Nations forces. Soon the South Korea government only occupied a small part of
Korea on the southern tip.
The War
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At first the United Nations was only trying to defend South Korea, however, after the
first summer of fighting, President Truman decided to go on the offensive. He said the war
was now about liberating North Korea from communism.
Battle of Inchon
General George MacArthur led the UN forces on an attack at the Battle of Inchon. The
Battle was a success and MacArthur was able to move in and route much of the North Korean
army. He soon had retaken control of the city of Seoul as well as South Korea back up to the
38th parallel.
China Enters the War
MacArthur continued to be aggressive and pushed the North Koreans all the way to the
northern border. However, the Chinese were not happy with this and sent their army to enter
the war. At this point President Truman replaced MacArthur with General Matthew
Ridgway.
Back to the 38th Parallel
Ridgway fortified the border just north of the 38th Parallel. Here the two sides would
battle for the rest of the war. North Korea would attack the south at various points and the UN
army would retaliate trying to prevent more attacks.
End of the War
Negotiations continued for much of the war, but President Truman did not want to
appear weak. When Eisenhower became president, he was much more willing to offer
concessions to end the war.
On July 17, 1953 a treaty was signed that ended the war. Few things had changed as a
result of the war. Both countries would remain independent and the border would remain at
the 38th parallel. However, between the two countries a 2 mile demilitarized zone was placed
to act as a buffer in hopes to prevent future wars.
Vietnam War
Dates: November 1, 1955 - April 30, 1975
The Vietnam War was fought between communist North Vietnam and the government
of Southern Vietnam. The North was supported by communist countries such as the People's
Republic of China and the Soviet Union. The South was supported by anti-communist
countries, primarily the United States.
The United States lost the Vietnam War. It lasted for twenty years, something the US
never expected when it joined in the fight. Not only did the US lose the war and the country
of Vietnam to the communists, the US lost prestige in the eyes of the world.
Before the War
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Prior to World War II Vietnam had been a colony of the French. During World War II
the Japanese took control of the area. When the war ended there was a power vacuum.
Vietnamese revolutionary and communist Ho Chi Minh wanted freedom for the country of
Vietnam. However, the Allies all agreed that Vietnam belonged to the French.
Containment
Eventually Ho Chi Minh and his rebels began to fight the French. Ho's soldiers in the
north were called the Viet Minh. Ho tried to get US help, but they didn't want Ho to succeed
as they were worried about communism spreading throughout Southeast Asia. When Ho
began to have success against the French, the US became more concerned. In 1950 they
began sending aid to the French in Vietnam.
The US Enters the War
In 1954 the French lost a major battle to the Vietnamese. They decided to pull out of
Vietnam. The country was divided up into a communist Northern Vietnam and a Southern
Vietnam. It was supposed to be reunited under a single election in 1956. However, the United
States did not want the country to become communist. They helped Ngo Dinh Diem get
elected in the South.
Major Events during the War
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March 1959 - Ho Chi Minh declared all out war in order to unite Vietnam under one
rule.
December 1961 - US military advisors begin to take a direct role in the war.
August 1964 - The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution is passed by the US Congress after two
US Destroyers were attacked by the North Vietnamese. This allowed US troops to use
armed force in the area.
March 8, 1965 - The first official US combat troops arrive in Vietnam. The US begins
a bombing campaign of Northern Vietnam called Operation Rolling Thunder.
January 30, 1968 - North Vietnam launches the Tet Offensive attacking around 100
cities in Southern Vietnam.
July 1969 - President Nixon begins the withdrawal of US troops.
March 1972 - The North Vietnamese attack across the border in the Easter Offensive.
President Johnson's War Plan
President Lyndon Johnson had the plan to help the Southern Vietnamese get strong
enough to fight the North rather than having the US win the war for them. By putting limits
on the troops and not allowing them to attack Northern Vietnam from 1965 to 1969, the US
had no chance to win.
A Difficult War
Not only were the US troops limited in what they could do strategically by President
Johnson, the jungles of Vietnam proved a difficult place to fight a war. It was very difficult to
find the enemy in the jungles and also difficult to determine who was the enemy. The troops
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had to deal with booby traps and constant ambushes from people they thought they were
fighting for.
The US Exits the War
When Richard Nixon became president he decided to end US involvement in the war.
He first began removing troops from Vietnam in July of 1969. On January 27, 1973 a peace
fire was negotiated. A few months later in March the final US troops were removed from
Vietnam. In April of 1975 South Vietnam surrendered to North Vietnam. Soon the country
became officially unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Vietnam was now a
communist country. The US had lost the Vietnam War and also taken a major blow in the
Cold War.
A Proxy War
The Vietnam War can be considered a "proxy" war in the Cold War. Although the
Soviet Union and the United States did not directly go to war, they each supported a different
side in the war.
The creation of Israel
The discovery of the Holocaust created great sympathy for the Jews. Many western
countries wanted to create a homeland where they could settle and feel safe. The problem was
that there were hundreds of thousands of Arabs living in Palestine and they naturally believed
that the land was theirs by right. They had lived there for more than a thousand years. Jews
had been arriving in the area since the 1890s. Jews believed that Palestine was the ‘Promised
Land’ of the Old Testament and that therefore they had a right to settle there. Friction had
soon developed between them and the Arabs. In the 1930s there had been a civil war between
the two groups. The British had tried to solve the problem but in the end only managed to
make the situation more difficult. They appeared to make promises to both sides, which they
could obviously not keep. Eventually they had been forced to give up. In 1947 the United
Nations was faced with having to come up with a solution.
The United Nations recommended dividing Palestine between Arabs and Jews. The
plan was published in November 1947. The Arabs immediately rejected partition, because
they believed that Palestine was theirs by right. The Plan also appeared to favour the Jews.
Although the population of Palestine was about 60 percent Arab, the Jews received more than
half of the land and the more fertile areas as well. The Arabs were allotted areas that were
mostly deserted.
As the British withdrew, the Palestinians fought to gain control of every town. On the
other side, Israeli terrorist gangs, the 'Stern' and the 'Irgun', forced Arabs to leave their homes
and flee for their lives. Those who stayed, or tried to fight, were killed, men, women and
children. This was a major factor in the bitter hatred that developed between Jews and Arabs.
Nevertheless, the United Nations plan was approved and preparations began for the new state
of Israel.
For their part, the Israelis announced that Israel would be a secular state that meant that
religion would have no influence, and that all people living within its borders would have the
full rights of citizenship. In other words, although Israel was being created as a homeland for
Jews, Arabs would qualify as citizens and be able to vote and stand for the Knesset, the Israeli
parliament. This did not satisfy many Arabs. They did not want to live in Israel. They wanted
a state of their own.
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On 14 May 1948 the Israeli Prime Minister, David Ben Gurion, announced the
creation of the state of Israel. There was great rejoicing in Tel Aviv, but the Arab
governments in the surrounding countries objected to the new state and tried to destroy it. On
15 May 1948 the armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Saudi Arabia and Egypt
attacked Israel.
Arab-Israeli Wars
The Arabs expected to destroy Israel very quickly. In theory they outnumbered the
Israelis 80 to 1, but the differences between the armed forces of the two sides were much less
significant. In fact the Arab armies were stopped and then driven back and Israel occupied all
the territory of Palestine.
The numbers of soldiers on both sides were about equal, but the Haganah, which was
the basis of the Israeli army, was well trained and used to fighting. On the other hand, the
Arab armies were inexperienced and divided. Each of the countries had its own battle plans
and aims. Israel’s opponents made separate truces the first in January 1949 and the last in July
1949.
Israel’s forces were also much better armed and supplied than those of the Arabs. The
Israelis had been able to buy large supplies of modern equipment from abroad, particularly
from the USA. There was great support for the new state of Israel in the USA. A very large
number of Jews had emigrated there and dominated some areas in New York City. Jewish
influence was very strong and played a very important role in business. The Jewish vote was
also very important in presidential elections.
The Israelis defended their country and occupied more territory. They took over all of
the areas that the United Nations had set aside for Arabs. Arabs living in the areas occupied
by Israel began to leave. Altogether about 800,000 Arabs left the new state of Israel. This
created the Palestinian refugee problem, which was to be at the heart of Middle Eastern
affairs for the next fifty years. As more Jewish immigrants began to arrive, new settlements
were begun to house the new immigrants. Many of these were in areas that Israel had
occupied during the war of 1948-9. This was a further source of anger for Arabs.
6,000 Jews had been killed during the war. But there were no peace treaties afterwards,
so it was clear that this was no more than a cessation of hostilities. Another attack could be
expected at any time. Israelis were well aware that they had to be on their guard against
another attack. Israel became a country on a permanent war footing. The Israeli government
tried to encourage more immigration in an effort to increase the Israeli population. In 1950,
the Law of Return gave every Jew the right to return to Israel. The population rose rapidly as
a result.
For the Arab states, the most lasting problem created by the war was the Palestinian
refugees. Altogether about 800,000 Arabs fled from Palestine to neighbouring countries,
where they lived in squalid refugee camps. The refugee camps became the training grounds
for the freedom fighters or 'Fedayeen'. Attacks began almost immediately upon targets in
Israel. In 1951, 137 Israelis were killed and in 1955 238 were killed.
The war increased Arab suspicion of the West and particularly of the USA, which had
recognised Israel immediately. For the first time the Arab states began to look towards the
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Soviet Union. In the Middle East, the war led to increased support for Arab nationalists such
as Nasser in Egypt and led to the downfall of King Farouq of Egypt.
As the war was only ended by a series of truces, the borders of Israel were not fixed
but marked by armistice lines. Over the next few years there were repeated incursions from
both side and constant artillery bombardments.
Suez Crisis
The Suez Crisis was an event in the Middle East in 1956. It began with Egypt taking
control of the Suez Canal which was followed by a military attack from Israel, France, and
Great Britain.
The Suez Canal
The Suez Canal is an important man-made waterway in Egypt. It connects the Red Sea
to the Mediterranean Sea. This is important for ships travelling from Europe to and from the
Middle East and India.
The Suez Canal was built by French developer Ferdinand de Lesseps. It took over 10
years and an estimated one and a half million workers to complete. The canal was first
opened on November 17, 1869.
Nasser Becomes President of Egypt
In 1954 Gamal Abdel Nasser took control of Egypt. One of Nasser's goals was to
modernize Egypt. He wanted to build the Aswan Dam as a major part of the improvement.
The United States and the British had agreed to loan Egypt the money for the Dam, but then
pulled their funding due to Egypt's military and political ties to the Soviet Union. Nasser was
angry.
Seizing the Canal
In order to pay for the Aswan Dam, Nasser decided to take over the Suez Canal. It had
been controlled by the British in order to keep it open and free to all countries. Nasser seized
the canal and was going to charge for passage in order to pay for the Aswan Dam.
Israel, France, and Great Britain Collude
The British, the French, and the Israelis all had issues with Nasser's government at the
time. They decided to use the canal as a reason to attack Egypt. They secretly planned that
Israel would attack and seize the canal. Then the French and the British would enter as
peacekeepers taking control of the canal.
Israel Attacks
Just like they had planned, the Israeli's attacked and grabbed the canal. Then the
British and French jumped in. They told both sides to stop, but when Egypt wouldn't they
bombed Egypt's air force.
The Crisis Ends
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The Americans were angry with the French and the British. At the same time of the
Suez Crisis, the Soviet Union was invading Hungary. The Soviet Union had also threatened to
enter the Suez Crisis on the side of the Egyptians. The United States ended up forcing the
Israelis, the British, and the French to withdraw in order to prevent conflict with the Soviet
Union
.
Results
One result of the Suez Crisis was that the esteem of Great Britain was never quite the
same again. It was clear that the two world superpowers at the time were the United States
and the Soviet Union. This was the Cold War and when something had an impact on the
interests of the United States and the Soviet Union, they were going to get involved and assert
their power.
The Suez Canal had strategic and economic impact for both the Soviet Union and the
United States. It was in both of their interests to keep the canal open.
P.L.O
The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is a political group that represents
the Palestinian people. The Palestinians are Arabs who live in the region called Palestine, at
the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. They lost much of their land when the country
of Israel was created in Palestine in 1948. Since then the Palestinians have worked for the
creation of an independent Palestinian state.
The PLO was formed in 1964. It brought various Palestinian groups together in one
organization. In 1969 Yasser Arafat took control of the PLO. Beginning in the late 1960s the
PLO launched many attacks against Israel. Its goal was to wipe out Israel as a country. Many
people considered the PLO to be a terrorist group.
In the 1980s some people within the PLO moved away from the goal of destroying
Israel. They believed that a Palestinian state could exist alongside Israel. In 1988 the PLO's
leaders declared an independent Palestinian state. They also stated that Israel had a right to
exist. Some Palestinian groups disagreed. They continued to call for Israel's destruction.
In 1993 the PLO and Israel took part in secret talks in Oslo, Norway. The talks led to a
series of peace agreements. For the first time, Israel and the PLO each admitted that the other
had a right to exist. Israel also agreed to gradually give up some of the Palestinian areas it
controlled. A group called the Palestinian Authority was created to govern these areas. Arafat
and two Israeli leaders won the Nobel peace prize for their efforts. The transfer of territory
was delayed because of fighting between Israel and the Palestinians. But in 2005 Israel gave
up the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank.
AL-fATAH
Fataḥ (Arabic: Fatḥ), formerly the Palestinian National Liberation Movement
(Levantine Arabic: [ˈfateħ]), is a secular Palestinian political party and the largest faction of
the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
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Fatah is generally considered to have had a strong involvement in revolutionary
struggle in the past and has maintained a number of militant groups. Fatah had been closely
identified with the leadership of its founder Yasser Arafat, until his death in 2004. Since
Arafat's departure, factionalism within the ideologically diverse movement has become more
apparent.
In the 2006 parliamentary election, the party lost its majority in the Palestinian
parliament to Hamas. Having resigned all its cabinet positions, it did not then assume the role
of main opposition party. Fatah's size is estimated at 6,000–8,000 fighters with 45–300
politicians. However, the Hamas legislative victory led to a conflict between Fatah and
Hamas, with Fatah retaining control of the Palestinian National Authority in the West Bank.
Hamas
Hamas is an organization of Palestinian Arabs. Its name means “Islamic Resistance
Movement.” The goal of Hamas is to create an Islamic country in Palestine. Members of
Hamas think that the Jewish country of Israel should not exist.
Hamas was founded in 1987. Its founders declared that Palestine is a homeland for
Muslims only. They called on all Palestinian Muslims to wage a holy war against Israel. They
claimed that this fight was a religious duty.
In 1988 the main Palestinian political group, the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO), said that Israel had the right to exist. Hamas strongly disagreed. Hamas's forces began
launching terrorist attacks against Israel. After the PLO and Israel signed a peace agreement
in 1993, Hamas increased its attacks.
Nevertheless, the PLO included Hamas members in the new Palestinian government,
the Palestinian Authority. In 2006 Hamas members participated in elections to the Palestinian
Authority's council. Hamas defeated the political party Fatah and won the most seats on the
council.
Hamas and Fatah formed a combined government, but the parties could not get along.
Forces representing both groups fought each other in the Palestinian territory known as
the Gaza Strip.
Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007. (Fatah remained in control of the other
Palestinian territory, the West Bank.) Israel launched attacks on the Gaza Strip, and Hamas's
forces attacked Israel. In 2011 Fatah and Hamas agreed to work together again.
THE GULF WARS
Iran-Iraq War of 1980
The Iran-Iraq War (or First Persian Gulf War) was a border war between
Iran and Iraq which lasted from September 22, 1980 until August 20, 1988. This war was
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commonly known as the Persian Gulf War until the Iraq-Kuwait Conflict (1990-91), which
became known as the Second Gulf War and later simply the Gulf War.
The conflict was occasioned by Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's desire for full
control of the Shatt al-Arab waterway at the head of the Persian Gulf, an important channel
for the oil exports of both countries. The United States armed and encouraged Hussein to
attack Iran over this disputed waterway as a possible way of undermining the Iranian
Revolution of 1979 which had eliminated U.S. control of Iran. In 1975, Secretary of
State Henry Kissinger had sanctioned the Shah of Iran to attack Iraq over the waterway,
which was then under Iraqi control. Iraq and other Arab countries also feared the possible
spread of Iran's brand of Islamic militancy following the February 1979 revolution against the
Shah. Iraq also had designs on the Iranian province of Khuzestan which has an Arab
majority.
Another factor that precipitated the Iran-Iraq conflict was the ambition of the leaders
of each country. Ayatollah Khomeini had designs on spreading his brand of
Islamic Fundamentalism throughout the Middle East. These efforts were minimal, however,
as the Islamic Revolution had only recently seized control of Iran. Hussein had also recently
come to power and was interested in elevating Iraq to a regional superpower. A successful
invasion of western Iran would make Iraq the sole dominating force in the Gulf region and its
lucrative oil trade. Such lofty ambitions were not that farfetched. Severe officer purges and
spare part shortages for Iran's American made equipment had crippled Iran's once mighty
military. To top it off, Iran had minimal defences in the Shatt al Arab area. On September 22,
1980, Iraq seized the opportunity and invaded. He used the Iran-backed assassination attempt
aimed at then-Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz as a pretext for the attack.
Iraq enjoyed substantial diplomatic support and military supplies from the Soviet
Union, and the financial backing of other Arab states (notably oil-rich Kuwait and Saudi). In
addition, the United States "tilted" toward Iraq, supplying it with weapons and economic aid.
For a period starting in 1985, the United States sold weapons to Iran in addition to Iraq. This
sparked the 1986-1987 Iran-Contra Affairs in Washington.
The war was characterized by extreme brutality, including the use of chemical
weapons, including tabun, by Iraq. Very little pressure was brought upon Iraq by the world
community to curb such attacks or to condemn its earlier initiation of hostilities. The tactics
used in the war resembled those of World War I with costly human commonly used by both
sides.
In June 1982 a successful Iranian counter-offensive recovered the areas lost to Iraq in
the war's early stages: Iraq offered a cessation of hostilities as outright Iranian victory
appeared a possibility, but Iran's insistence from July on pursuing the destruction of the Iraqi
regime prolonged the conflict for another six years.
Continued hostilities despite the intervention of western naval forces to protect the sea
lanes of the Gulf led to the death of 37 seamen in an Iraq missile attack (May 17, 1987) on the
U.S. frigate Stark and the shooting down by the U.S. cruiser Vincennes (July 3, 1988) of an
Iranian airliner (apparently mistaken for an approaching military aircraft) with the loss of all
290 passengers and crew.
Aftermath
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The war was disastrous for both countries, stalling economic development and disrupting
oil exports, and costing an estimated million lives. Iraq was left with serious debts to its
former Arab backers, including $14 billion loaned by Kuwait, a debt which contributed to
Hussein's 1990 decision to invade Kuwait.
The end of the war left the borders unchanged. Two years later, as war with the
western powers loomed, Hussein recognised Iranian rights over the eastern half of the Shatt
al-Arab, a reversion to the status quo which he had repudiated a decade earlier.
The Kuwait War of 1990
In 1990 an army from Iraq took over the country of Kuwait. In January 1991 the
United (UN) sent in armies from many countries to push out the Iraqis. The war they fought is
called the Persian Gulf War. (Kuwait and Iraq lie on the Persian Gulf, a body of water in the
Middle East.)
Background
Iraq needed money after fighting the Iran-Iraq War, which ended in 1988. Iraq's
neighbour Kuwait was rich because it produced oil. To get control of Kuwait's oil,
President Saddam Hussein of Iraq sent in troops on August 2, 1990. Kuwait fell quickly to the
Iraqis.
Almost every other country disapproved of what Iraq had done. On November 29 the
UN threatened Iraq with military force unless it got out of Kuwait by January 15, 1991.
The United States and other countries thought that Iraq might also try to get the oil
supply in Saudi Arabia. (Saudi Arabia is next to Kuwait and Iraq.) To shield Saudi Arabia,
they sent forces there. This military build-up was called Operation Desert Shield.
By January 1991 there were about 700,000 troops in the Persian Gulf region ready to
fight Iraq. These allied troops came from the United States, the United Kingdom, France,
Canada, Australia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and several other countries. Meanwhile,
Saddam Hussein ignored the UN's deadline. He built up his army in Kuwait to about 300,000
troops.
War
During the night of January 16–17, the Persian Gulf War began with a massive attack
on Iraq by allied warplanes. This campaign was named Operation Desert Storm. A ground
attack, called Operation Desert Saber, followed on February 23–24. Within just four days,
Iraq's troops stopped fighting. Arab and U.S. forces easily recaptured Kuwait's capital. The
war ended on February 27, 1991. About 300 allied soldiers and thousands of Iraqis died in the
war.
Results
The UN had banned most trade with Iraq before the war. The ban remained in force after
the fighting ended. At the same time, the UN told Iraq that it must destroy many of its
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weapons. The UN sent inspectors to Iraq to make sure that the Iraqis destroyed the weapons.
In about 1998, however, Iraq stopped cooperating with the inspectors. This and other disputes
led to another war. The United States and other troops invaded Iraq in March 2003.
Attack on World Trade Centre in USA
On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the Unites States. They hijacked four
airplanes in mid-flight. The terrorists flew two of the planes into two skyscrapers at the World
Trade Centre in New York City. The impact caused the buildings to catch fire and collapse.
Another plane destroyed part of the Pentagon (the U.S. military headquarters) in Arlington,
Virginia. The fourth plane crashed in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Officials believe that the
terrorists on that plane intended to destroy either the White House or the U.S. Capitol.
Passengers on the plane fought the terrorists and prevented them from reaching their goal. In
all, nearly 3,000 people were killed in the 9/11 attacks.
Who attacked us?
A total of 19 terrorists hijacked the four planes on 9/11. All of the men were from
nations in the Middle East. They belonged to a terrorist group called Al Qaeda (ahl KAYdah), led by Osama bin Laden. Al Qaeda practices an extreme version of the religion of
Islam. The group is intensely opposed to the United States and other
Western, democratic nations. They are especially against the military presence of these
countries in Arab nations. Since the group’s creation by bin Laden in the late 1980s, Al Qaeda
has helped coordinate and fund numerous bombings worldwide.
How did America respond to 9/11?
In October 2001, the U.S. and its allies invaded Afghanistan, where Al Qaeda was
based. The extreme Islamic group that ran Afghanistan's government, known as the Taliban,
was protecting Bin Laden and allowing Al Qaeda to run training camps in the country. U.S.led forces soon brought down the Taliban. They are still working to help rebuild and stabilize
the nation. Since 2001, many Al Qaeda members have been captured or killed. On May 1,
2011, U.S. troops killed Bin Laden where he was hiding in Pakistan.
The U.S. invaded Iraq in 2003. Then President George W. Bush and other U.S. leaders
believed that the country’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, was hiding terrible weapons that could
be given to terrorists. Hussein was captured and later put to death by an Iraqi court. No
weapons of mass destruction were found.
How did America change after 9/11?
Following 9/11, the U.S. government took many steps to try to make the country safer. It
tightened security at airports and in public buildings. A new cabinet-level department—the
Department of Homeland Security—was created. It works to protect the United States from
terrorism.
The war in Afghanistan
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The war in Afghanistan (or the American war in Afghanistan) is the period in which
the United States invaded Afghanistan after the September 11 attacks. Supported initially by
close allies, they were later joined by NATO beginning in 2003. It followed the Afghan Civil
War's 1996–2001 phase. Its public aims were to dismantle al-Qaeda and to deny it a safe base
of operations in Afghanistan by removing the Taliban from power. Key allies, including the
United Kingdom, supported the U.S. from the start to the end of the phase. This phase of the
War is the longest war in United States history.
In 2001, U.S. President George W. Bush demanded that the Taliban hand over Osama
bin Laden and expel al-Qaeda; bin Laden had already been wanted by the United Nations
since 1999. The Taliban declined to extradite him unless given what they deemed convincing
evidence of his involvement in the 9/11 attacks and declined demands to extradite other
terrorism suspects apart from bin Laden. The request was dismissed by the U.S. as a delaying
tactic, and on 7 October 2001 it launched Operation Enduring Freedom with the United
Kingdom. The two were later joined by other forces, including the Northern. In December
2001, the United Nations Security Council established the International Security Assistance
Force (ISAF), to assist the Afghan interim authorities with securing Kabul. At the Bonn
Conference in December 2001, Hamid Karzai was selected to head the Afghan Interim
Administration, which after a 2002 loya jirga in Kabul became the Afghan Transitional
Administration. In the popular elections of 2004, Karzai was elected president of the country,
now named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
NATO became involved as an alliance in August 2003, taking the helm of
the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), and later that year assumed leadership of
ISAF with troops from 43 countries. NATO members provided the core of the force. One
portion of U.S. forces in Afghanistan operated under NATO command; the rest remained
under direct U.S. command. Taliban leader Mullah Omar reorganized the movement, and in
2003, launched an insurgency against the government and ISAF. Though outgunned and
outnumbered, insurgents from the Taliban, Haqqani Network, Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin and
other groups have waged asymmetric warfare with guerrilla and ambushes in the countryside,
suicide against urban targets and turncoat killings against coalition forces. The Taliban
exploited weaknesses in the Afghan government, among the most corrupt in the world, to
reassert influence across rural areas of southern and eastern Afghanistan. ISAF responded in
2006 by increasing troops for counterinsurgency operations to "clear and hold" villages and
"nation building" projects to "win hearts and minds". While ISAF continued to battle the
Taliban insurgency, fighting crossed into neighbouring North-West Pakistan.
On 2 May 2011, United States Navy SEALs killed Osama bin Laden in Abbot bad,
Pakistan. In May 2012, NATO leaders endorsed an exit strategy for withdrawing their forces.
UN-backed peace talks have since taken place between the Afghan government and the
Taliban. In May 2014, the United States announced that "[its] combat operations [would] end
in 2014, [leaving] just a small residual force in the country until the end of 2016".As of 2015,
tens of thousands of people have been killed in the war. Over 4,000 ISAF soldiers and civilian
contractors as well as over 15,000 Afghan national security forces members have been killed,
as well as nearly 20 thousand civilians. In October 2014, British forces handed over the last
bases in Helmand to the Afghan military, officially ending their combat operations in the war.
On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended combat operations in Afghanistan and
transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government, via a ceremony in Kabul.
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MODULE-III
CHANGING WORLD
Emergence of People's Republic of China
Following the Chinese Civil War and the victory of Mao Zedong's Communist forces
over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao
declared the founding of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949.
The Chinese Revolution of 1949
On October 1, 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong declared the creation of
the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The announcement ended the costly full-scale civil
war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Nationalist Party, or Kuomintang
(KMT), which broke out immediately following World War II and had been preceded by on
and off conflict between the two sides since the 1920’s. The creation of the PRC also
completed the long process of governmental upheaval in China begun by the Chinese
Revolution of 1911. The “fall” of mainland China to communism in 1949 led the United
States to suspend diplomatic ties with the PRC for decades.
The Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921 in Shanghai, originally existed as a
study group working within the confines of the First United Front with the Nationalist Party.
Chinese Communists joined with the Nationalist Army in the Northern Expedition of 1926–
27 to rid the nation of the warlords that prevented the formation of a strong central
government. This collaboration lasted until the “White Terror” of 1927, when the Nationalists
turned on the Communists, killing them or purging them from the party.
After the Japanese invaded Manchuria in 1931, the Government of the Republic of
China (ROC) faced the triple threat of Japanese invasion, Communist uprising, and warlord
insurrections. Frustrated by the focus of the Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-shek on internal
threats instead of the Japanese assault, a group of generals abducted Chiang in 1937 and
forced him to reconsider cooperation with the Communist army. As with the first effort at
cooperation between the Nationalist government and the CCP, this Second United Front was
short-lived. The Nationalists expended needed resources on containing the Communists,
rather than focusing entirely on Japan, while the Communists worked to strengthen their
influence in rural society.
During World War II, popular support for the Communists increased. U.S. officials in
China reported a dictatorial suppression of dissent in Nationalist-controlled areas. These
undemocratic polices combined with wartime corruption made the Republic of China
Government vulnerable to the Communist threat. The CCP, for its part, experienced success
in its early efforts at land reform and was lauded by peasants for its unflagging efforts to fight
against the Japanese invaders.
Japanese surrender set the stage for the resurgence of civil war in China. Though only
nominally democratic, the Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive
U.S. support both as its former war ally and as the sole option for preventing Communist
control of China. U.S. forces flew tens of thousands of Nationalist Chinese troops into
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Japanese-controlled territory and allowed them to accept the Japanese surrender. The Soviet
Union, meanwhile, occupied Manchuria and only pulled out when Chinese Communist forces
were in place to claim that territory.
In 1945, the leaders of the Nationalist and Communist parties, Chiang Kai-shek and
Mao Zedong, met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war government. Both
agreed on the importance of democracy, a unified military, and equality for all Chinese
political parties. The truce was tenuous, however, and, in spite of repeated efforts by U.S.
General George Marshall to broker an agreement, by 1946 the two sides were fighting an allout civil war. Years of mistrust between the two sides thwarted efforts to form a coalition
government.
As the civil war gained strength from 1947 to 1949, eventual Communist victory
seemed more and more likely. Although the Communists did not hold any major cities after
World War II, they had strong grassroots support, superior military organization and morale,
and large stocks of weapons seized from Japanese supplies in Manchuria. Years of corruption
and mismanagement had eroded popular support for the Nationalist Government. Early in
1947, the ROC Government was already looking to the island province of Taiwan, off the
coast of Fujian Province, as a potential point of retreat. Although officials in the Truman
Administration were not convinced of the strategic importance to the United States of
maintaining relations with Nationalist China, no one in the U.S. Government wanted to be
charged with facilitating the “loss” of China to communism. Military and financial aid to the
floundering Nationalists continued, though not at the level that Chiang Kai-shek would have
liked. In October of 1949, after a string of military victories, Mao Zedong proclaimed the
establishment of the PRC; Chiang and his forces fled to Taiwan to regroup and plan for their
efforts to retake the mainland.
The ability of the PRC and the United States to find common ground in the wake of
the establishment of the new Chinese state was hampered by both domestic politics and
global tensions. In August of 1949, the Truman administration published the “China White
Paper,” which explained past U.S. policy toward China based upon the principle that only
Chinese forces could determine the outcome of their civil war. Unfortunately for Truman, this
step failed to protect his administration from charges of having “lost” China. The unfinished
nature of the revolution, leaving a broken and exiled but still vocal Nationalist Government
and army on Taiwan, only heightened the sense among U.S. anti-communists that the
outcome of the struggle could be reversed. The outbreak of the Korean War, which pitted the
PRC and the United States on opposite sides of an international conflict, ended any
opportunity for accommodation between the PRC and the United States. Truman’s desire to
prevent the Korean conflict from spreading south led to the U.S. policy of protecting the
Chiang Kai-shek government on Taiwan.
For more than twenty years after the Chinese revolution of 1949, there were few
contacts, limited trade and no diplomatic ties between the two countries. Until the 1970s, the
United States continued to recognize the Republic of China, located on Taiwan, as China’s
true government and supported that government’s holding the Chinese seat in the United
Nations.
Mao Zedong
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Mao Zedong (also called Mao Tse-tung) founded the People's Republic of China and
was the primary leader of the country from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976.
Mao also led the communist revolution in China and fought against the Nationalist Party in
the Chinese Civil War. His ideas and philosophies regarding communism and Marxism are
often referred to as Maoism.
Where did Mao grow up?
Mao was born the son of a peasant farmer on December 26, 1893 in Shaoshan, Hunan
Province, China. He attended the local school until he turned 13 when he went to work full
time on the family's farm. In 1911 Mao joined the Revolution Army and fought against
the Qing Dynasty. After that he went back to school. He also worked as a librarian.
Becoming a Communist
In 1921 Mao went to his first communist party meeting. He soon became a leader in
the party. When the communists allied with the Kuomintang, Moa went to work for Sun Yatsen in Hunan.Since Mao grew up a peasant he believed strongly in communist ideas. He
studied Marxism and felt that communism was the best way to get the peasants behind him in
overthrowing the government.
Chinese Civil War
After President Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek took over the government
and the Kuomintang. Chiang no longer wanted the communists as part of his government. He
broke the alliance with the communists and began killing and imprisoning communist leaders.
The Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang (also called the Nationalist Party) and the
communists had begun.
After years of fighting, the Kuomintang decided to destroy the communists once and
for all. In 1934 Chiang took a million soldiers and attacked the main communist camp. Mao
convinced the leaders to retreat.
The Long March
The retreat of the communists from the Kuomintang army is called the Long March
today. Over the course of a year Mao led the communists over 7,000 miles across southern
China and then north to Shaanxi province. Although most of the soldiers died during the
march, around 8,000 survived. These 8,000 were loyal to Mao. Mao Zedong was now the
leader of the communist party (also called the CPC).
More Civil War
The Civil War subsided for a while when the Japanese invaded China and during
World War II, but picked up again quickly after the war. This time Mao and the communists
were stronger. They soon routed the Kuomintang. Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of
Taiwan.
Founding the People's Republic of China
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In 1949 Mao Zedong founded the People's Republic of China. Mao was the Chairman
of the Communist Party and the absolute leader of China. He was a brutal leader, insuring his
power by executing anyone who disagreed with him. He also set up labour camps where
millions of people were sent and many died.
The Great Leap Forward
I In 1958 Mao announced his plan to industrialize China. He called it the Great Leap
Forward. Unfortunately the plan backfired. Soon the country experienced a terrible famine. It
is estimated that 40 million people starved to death. This horrible failure caused Mao to lose
power for a time. He was still part of the government, but no longer had absolute power.
The Cultural Revolution
In 1966 Mao made his comeback in the Cultural Revolution. Many young peasants
followed him and formed the Red Guard. These loyal soldiers helped him to take over.
Schools were shut down and people who disagreed with Mao were either killed or sent to the
farms to be re-educated through hard labour.
Death
Mao ruled China until he died on September 9, 1976 from Parkinson's disease. He was
82 years old.
Nationalist Movement in Africa
The topic of African nationalism has been repeatedly contested and redefined over the
past century. At the end of the nineteenth century, the European powers divided the continent
and ruled virtually all of Africa, and African nations lost their sovereignty. During the 1950s
and 1960s, when Africans began to seriously resist colonial rule, Africa underwent a major
transformation and each colony eventually gained its freedom. Africans, in general, united in
hopes of regaining their sovereignty. Nationalism originally referred to the process of uniting
and regaining freedom from European rule, but it was also defined by pioneer African leaders
to mean the creation of new nations as well as their economic and political transformation.
African nationalism is a political movement for Pan-Africanism and for national selfdetermination. Origins of the idea come from European nationalist schools of thought.
Political interest began in the 1870s and political organizations started to form in the 1890s.
African Nationalism came to mean the struggle against foreign colonial powers ruling over
African territory. In the years after Second World War, African nationalism gained
strength, resulting in independence for Libya in 1951 and Ghana in 1957. All but six African
countries were independent nation-states by 1966. Later after many successful nationalist
movements in Africa, "African Nationalism" began to be associated with the PanAfrican movement. Edward Wilmot Blyden has been described as the founder of African
nationalism. Julius Nyerere defined African nationalism as a new kind of nationalism and that
it is "meaningless, dangerous, is anachronistic if it is not at the same time pan-Africanism.
National Movement in Egypt
Egypt became a British protectorate on 14th December 1914. During First World War
agitation towards the British increased as all sects of the population united in their discontent.
British rule caused Egypt’s involvement in the war to increase – 1.5 million Egyptians were
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conscripted in the Labour Corps and much of the country’s infrastructure was seized for the
army – contributing to the dissatisfaction.
Saad Zaghlul, a former education minister, founded the Wafd (literally meaning
delegation) Party, or the Egyptian Delegation Party, during First World War. The party
comprised of activists spanning political parties and classes, became prominent soon after the
war. Their immediate goal was the end of the protectorate. Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points (in
which he stressed all people had the right to self-determination) was a catalyst and inspiration
for the nationalists.
Consequently, two days after the November 11, 1918, armistice, Zaghlul, along with
‘Abd al-‘Aziz and ‘Ali Sha’rawi, requested that the High Commissioner Sir Reginald
Wingate allow them to travel to London and officially present Egypt’s demand for
independence. Previously, Wingate had been interested in meeting with the Wafd leaders, but
the British authority overrode the possibility. Prime Minister Hussein Rushdi Pasha supported
the right of the Wafd to present their case in London or Paris as well. Zaghlul also sent a
telegram to Wilson asking for his support of Egyptian independence.
On 13th January 1919, five days before the opening of the Paris Peace Conference, the
Wafd party held a General Congress at the home of its member Hamad Pasha Basil. The
British had continually refused them the right to go to London or Paris to talk with leaders
and yet a Syrian delegation was allowed to attend the Peace Conference. Indignant, Zaghlul
spoke at the General Congress about Egypt’s right to independence as championed by
Muhammad Ali the Great and acknowledged by Europe in 1840. The party then sent cables to
the London House of Commons and other political leaders, but they received no signs of
support.
The Wafdists planned to hold another mass meeting on January 31, but the British
forces stopped them from assembling. Zaghlul was unable to publicly speak again until
February 7, when he stole the platform at the end of a speech given by a European advisor to
the Court of Appeals on criminal law. The British were becoming concerned over the Wafd
Party’s growing support and audacity.
Meanwhile, the Wafdists disseminated and collected thousands of signed powers of
attorneys from Egyptian citizens, which were sent via telegram to the Sultani Diwan in
support of Zaghlul. Wafdists also conducted another grass roots campaign, collecting
signatures to allow Zaghlul and other leaders of the Wafdist party to petition for Egypt’s
independence.
On 8th March 1919, the British arrested Zaghlul and two other of the movement’s
leaders, and expelled them to Malta, fearing the movement was gaining too much power.
Protests and strikes erupted across the country, especially Cairo and Alexandria, sustaining
until April and incorporating Egyptians of all backgrounds: men, women, Muslims, and
Christians (Copts), intellectuals, shop owners, and tradesmen.
On 9th March 1919, students at the Egyptian University and students at Al-Azhar
demonstrated. (Initial protests in Cairo reportedly incurred some violence on behalf of both
sides, and initial protests in the countryside allegedly also involved some violence).
Over 10,000 students, workers, and professionals marched on Cairo’s Abdin Palace on
March 15, where they were met by thousands more protesters discontent with British rule.
The next day, the wives of the exiled leaders, Safia Zaghlul, Huda Sharawi, and Mana Fahmi
Wissa, organized a march of thousands of women in traditional garb. They carried flags of the
crescent and cross, representing Muslim and Christian (i.e. entire country) unification. These
women of the upper class were important leaders in boycotting British goods and directing
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other protests throughout the campaign for independence. Transport workers, judges, and
lawyers engaged in massive strikes as well.
By the third week of sustained protests in March, Britain realized that the political
climate was spiralling out of control and so began a series of changes in the country. They
replaced High Commissioner Wingate, who was seen as too sympathetic to the Egyptian
cause, with an Acting High Commissioner only to then appoint the acclaimed General
Edmund Allenby as Special High Commissioner soon after on March 24. Allenby met with a
representative group of the nationalists. They reached a negotiation in which the campaigners
promised in writing to end the protests in exchange for the allowance of the exiled leaders to
go to Paris. They were released on the April 7 and travelled to Paris on the 11th.
Back in early April, Egyptians had started a strike. On the 2nd, a delegation of
nationalists voted to begin a strike until: the Wafd party was recognized by the British as the
official representative party of Egypt, the protectorate was abolished, and martial law was
ended. The strike was meant to last for three days but was extended indefinitely.
A general assembly was held days later on April 16 at al-Azhar – a historical and
symbolic location for Egyptians – with all classes of society from across the country
represented. The participants drafted a letter of the campaign’s demands. One day later, the
strike begun in early April morphed into a general strike. Egyptians responsible for watering
and sweeping the streets refused to carry out their JOBS, creating insufferable street
conditions. The British were forced to use groups of prisoners for the task. The Rushdi
government resigned on April 21, leading nationalists to believe there was finally recognition
of Zaghlul’s right to rule and represent the national cause, and so they concluded the strike on
April 23.
Britain faced difficulty with the growing state of civil disobedience and sent Lord
Alfred Milner, a statesmen and colonial administrator, to Egypt in December on a special
diplomatic mission to assess the possibilities of maintaining British control in Egypt while
placating the demand for independence. He arrived on December 7. In response, Wafdists and
supporters boycotted his meetings, closed shops, struck, and pamphleted against cooperation
with the ‘Milner Mission’. The Wafd party learned of the hotel where Milner was staying and
was even able to control all the meetings he had with Egyptians, from the people he spoke
with to the information they shared with him.
More acts of civil disobedience followed during the Milner Mission: students
demonstrated against the playing of British military music; 15,000 nationalists met at
Alexandria’s mosque Abu’l-‘Abbas al-Mursi; ministers quit and lawyers went on strike,
confounding the judicial system. Provincial councils, trade guilds, religious communities, and
students all strategized against the British rule. In about three months, Milner was sent 1,130
messages from Egyptian nationalists.
Milner left Egypt in March 1920. In his report of the situation, he advised that Britain
abolish the protectorate and grant Egypt independence. He saw the hostile stance of the
Egyptian people as incontrollable and believed Britain would not be able to continue to
pursue its interests given such public opinion. Also due to the outpouring of public sentiment,
Milner decided to include Zaghlul in negotiations in Paris. Private talks occurred during the
summer of 1920. The meetings were a major accomplishment for the Wafdists and resulted in
one change: the participants agreed to abolish the precondition of the protectorate in order to
hold a negotiation over independence.
On 4th April 1921, Zaghlul returned to Egypt. Allenby was convinced Zaghlul was a
British puppet in their plans to create a new independent Egypt representing British interests.
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Thus, he exiled Zaghlul in December – this time he was deported to the Seychelles. As with
Zaghlul’s first exiling, Egyptians responded with strikes and protests across the country.
On 28th February 1922 Britain declared limited independence for Egypt. They did not
incorporate any of the opposition leaders in their negotiations, however, in order to maintain
control of significant details. Most importantly, Britain kept control of Sudan and maintained
its right to defend foreign interests in Egypt. A new Egyptian constitution was created in
1923, and in the 1924 election the Wafdists won a significant majority of seats in parliament.
Zaghlul also became Prime Minister. The Wafd party was prominent politically until the early
1950s.
Overall, the Egyptian struggle for independence from 1919-1922 is hailed as the first
nonviolent mass protest in the modern Middle East.
Gamal Abdel Nasser (15 January 1918-28 September 1970)
Gamal Abdel Nasser (Gamal Abd El-Nasser) led Egypt to secular independence in the
1950s and held the office of president from 1956 until his death in 1970. Nasser was an army
officer who led the military Junta that deposed Egypt's King Farouk in 1952. By the end of
1954 Nasser had replaced titular leader General Mohammed Neguib as president. Nasser is
remembered for his ambitious attempt to modernize Egypt and create a secular Arab empire
in northern Africa and the Middle East. He promoted the construction of the Aswan High
Dam (completed the year he died) and challenged British, French and Israeli forces for
control of the Suez Canal, nationalizing the canal in 1956. Nasser had a knack for turning
military failure into political victory -- defeated by Israel in 1956 in the Sinai Peninsula and
humiliated in 1967's Six Day War (June 5-11), he nonetheless emerged a hero in the Arab
world and a player in the uneasy relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. He died in
office in 1970 and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat.
Nationalist Movement in Algeria
One of the longest struggles for freedom was launched in Algeria. The French
occupation of Algeria had begun in 1830.After the Second World War, France was engaged
in a protracted colonial war to retain her rule over Algeria.
Unlike other French colonies, a large number of French colons (settlers) had settled in
Algeria. In 1960, they numbered about a million. They controlled most of the economy and
the administration of Algeria and were determined to hold on to their domination even when
the people and government of France favoured a settlement. The situation was comparable to
some other colonies, such as South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, where White settlers were
for long totally opposed to any settlement which would end their domination. In 1954, the
nationalist movement in Algeria gave a call for a popular uprising. Soon after, a full-scale war
of national liberation began.
The National Liberation Front (FLN) of Algeria set up its own liberation army which
had its regular armed troops as well as guerrilla units. The French army in Algeria now
numbered over 800,000 soldiers who resorted to large-scale atrocities and tortures. The FLN
set up its Provisional Government which was recognised by many countries.
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In 1958, a revolt by the French settlers and the French army in Algeria led to the
overthrow of the Fourth Republic, as the French government since 1946 was called. General
de Gaulle came to power in France and a new constitution creating the Fifth Republic came in
force.
The French settlers and the army in Algeria had hoped that the new government would
support the war to maintain French rule in Algeria. However, when they discovered that de
Gaulle favoured a settlement with the Algerians, they organised unsuccessful revolts.
In March 1962, de Gaulle’s government opened negotiations with the FLN which led
to a ceasefire in Algeria. An agreement was also reached on Algeria’s independence and the
complete withdrawal of French forces from Algeria.
A referendum was held in France on the question of Algerian independence in April
1962 and the French people voted overwhelmingly in favour of Algeria’s independence. In a
similar referendum held on 1 July 1962, 99 per cent of the people in Algeria voted in favour
of complete independence. On 3 July 1962, Algeria’s independence was recognised by
France. About 1,500,000 Algerians had been killed by the French troops in the war of
national liberation.
Nationalist Movement in Congo
In the 1950s, revolution was brewing in the Belgian Congo. Africans living in
colonized countries felt the winds of change swirling as their mother countries in Europe
struggled to stand back up after suffering often devastating defeats in the Second World War
championing the ideal self determination and freedom while continuing to oppress their
colonies.
In the Congo in particular, there was a rather sudden rise of political parties, led by
evolues, educated Congolese elites. They gave the Congolese a voice in creating institutional
representation of what they wanted Congo to eventually become. One such party was the
Parti Solidaire Africain, which pushed for immediate and complete independence from
Belgium.
Political parties gained power, but only after the people themselves had been
protesting the Belgian rule in their own way. In the 1950s, the increased bureaucratization in
the Belgian administration of the Congo actually decreased the level of control that the local
administrators had over this territory, as they were cluttered with paper work and the pressure
from their higher-ups to reduce the number of problematic incidents. Often, they simply
began looking away when such incidents did occur, failing to report them, with the result of
emboldening the Congolese masses.
Change began to accelerate after the riots in Leopoldville, Congo’s capital, on 4 th
January, 1959. Thirty-four Africans were killed in riots that broke out after members of the
political party ABAKO, or Alliance des Bakongo, were not allowed to assemble by the
Belgium administration.
This spread and agitated already high discontent to new levels, as the rural populations
began protesting Belgian rule like never before. Over the next few months, the Congolese felt
empowered to resist. They ‘tested’ the Belgian administrators, daring them to punish the
colonized people. And often, because of the bureaucratic restraints, little was done, only
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empowering the people more. Families did not show up for the census. Congolese would
refuse to stand at attention before administrators, or would purposely respond slowly to them,
or even speak back and engage in altercations or fights with Europeans. There was a
tremendous psychological shift happening, one that prepared the Congolese for political
parties to channel and organize that rage and newfound courage.
The Parti Solidaire Africain only really started in May 1959, but was very successful
in the rural communities, as they provided a legitimate and fully Congolese institution to
organize and channel a source of national pride and unity, as well as opposition to the
Belgium administration. They allied themselves with ABAKO, which was the other large
political party at the time, though there were numerous other smaller groups as well. The Parti
Solidaire Africain leadership sent propaganda teams to convince rural villagers to join,
finding great enthusiasm for action against Belgium already there. As members of the party
began to protest more and more, they also began to provide functions and services provided
by the Belgian administration, such as healthcare, judicial systems, taxes, etc. The Parti
Solidaire Africain became more and more like a quasi-government, stepping in to provide for
the people, and uniting them in their membership and in a sense of belonging.
There was a heavy emphasis placed by the Parti Solidaire Africain on ‘staying calm
and not engaging in violence.’ The Parti Solidaire Africain leadership circulated many
pamphlets and articles among the party elite arguing against any form of violence and vocally
rebuked incidences of violence that did occasionally occur. In response to one such incident,
Katshunga, a party leader, wrote, “I regret this act of violence, and you do so also, it should
not recur because it is against our doctrine. Tell this, and re-tell it, to the children and to all
those who are excited especially at such moments.”
In 1959, the Belgian government decided to hold an election that would give
Congolese puppets formal power over the governance of the Congo. The Belgian intention
was to take the relevance from the radicals’ lips by appeasing the people with a moderate
puppet government, and erase the calls for independence. Only men were allowed to vote.
The Parti Solidaire Africain urged its members and the Congolese people to boycott
the elections, by not registering and not participating in the election. This movement and
protest was extremely successful for a variety of reasons.
The Parti Solidaire Africain was in contact with the Belgium government and did have
some negotiations, as they worked out the terms and process of the protest. On 27 th
September 1959, Parti Solidaire Africain and ABAKO sent a joint memo to the Belgian
government explaining that they would boycott the elections in December, “as long as the
electoral procedures remain undemocratic”.
The Belgian government continued with the elections, not only underestimating the
clout the political parties, but also the passion of the people. Many people were tempted by
the idea of an election that promised genuine self-governance, so the Parti Solidaire Africain
had to work extremely hard explaining the deception. While Belgium tried at first to arrest
Congolese men who tried to avoid registering for the election, they soon found that it was
difficult to catch everyone, since so many Congolese men were complicit in the protest. The
Belgium administration issued the threat of seven days in prison and a fine of 500 francs.
Although many men were arrested, especially in the more rural areas, the boycott
persisted and was enormously successful. Approximately 5.27 % of the 397,086 people in
Bas-Congo district voted, and 1.2% of the 1,157,112 in the Kwilu district. In some areas there
were much higher rates of participation, ranging from 30 to 60%, but these numbers were
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primarily limited to areas with large European populations or where ABAKO and Parti
Solidaire Africain did not have as much influence.
The overwhelming success of the boycott proved to the Belgian administration that
Congo was ungovernable for them. Deciding against a bloody and possibly drawn out and
politically costly affair to make the Congolese comply, like the war in Algeria, the
administration chose to cut the increasingly unprofitable colony. Moreover, international
pressure was against them, as the United States was pressuring European nations to give up
their colonies, aligned with the idea of self-determination.
On 20th January 1960, the Belgian government invited members of 13 different
political parties – 96 different Congolese – to the month-long Brussels Round Table talks. At
the talks the Congolese demanded immediate independence while the Belgian government
preferred a process spanning three to four years. Putting up a united front and completely
unwilling to back down, the Congolese representatives got their demand, and the date for
Congo’s independence was set: June 30, 1960. Free elections for the government were set for
May.
However, a rift between the leadership and the masses was exposed once the unifying
desire for independence was achieved. The Parti Solidaire Africain broke along the true
disparity of power and influence that existed all along between the elites and the masses and
between different ethnic groups. After the May 1960 elections, the Parti Solidaire Africain
began to fall apart along issues of ideology, power differences, and ethnicity.
owever, everything was wiped clean when the military, the Force Publique, rebelled
and mutinied against the new government and threw the Congo into complete crisis on every
level. (Global Non Violent Action Data Base)
African National Congress
African National Congress (ANC), the oldest black (now multiracial) political
organization in South Africa; founded in 1912. Prominent in its opposition to apartheid, the
organization began as a nonviolent civil-rights group. In the 1940s and 50s it joined with
other groups in promoting strikes and civil disobedience among the emerging urban black
workforce.
The ANC was banned in 1960 and the following year initiated guerrilla attacks. In
1964 its leader, Nelson Mandela, was sentenced to life in prison, and the leadership was
forced into exile. Although outlawed, the ANC became the popularly acknowledged vehicle
of mass resistance to apartheid in the late 1970s and the 1980s; the training of ANC guerrillas
continued in neighbouring countries. Following the end of the ban on the ANC and the
release of Mandela in 1990, many of its leaders returned from exile, and the ANC negotiated
with the government for black enfranchisement and an end to apartheid.
In the early 1990s there were violent clashes between supporters of the ANC and
Inkatha (see Buthelezi, Mangosuthu Gatsha). The ANC became a registered political party in
1994 in advance of the first South African elections open to citizens of all races. It won over
60% of the vote in the elections, and Mandela was elected president of South Africa; the
ANC has continued to be the dominant party in South African politics in the years since.
Thabo Mbeki succeeded Mandela as head of the ANC in 1997 and as president of South
Africa in 1999.
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Tensions within the ANC, largely as a result of the failure of South Africa's economic
growth to benefit poorer South Africans, resulted in Mbeki's loss of the party leadership to
Jacob Zuma in 2007 and his resignation as South Africa's president in 2008. ANC deputy
leader Kgalema Motlanthe was elected South Africa's interim president. Following Mbeki's
resignation as president, some of his ANC supporters left the party and formed the Congress
of the People, but the ANC remained the nation's dominant party. Zuma succeeded Motlanthe
as South Africa's president in 2009.
Nelson Mandela: Struggle against Apartheid
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Occupation: President of South Africa and Activist
Born: July 18, 1918 in Mvezo, South Africa
Died: December 5, 2013 in Johannesburg, South Africa
Best known for: Serving 27 years in prison as a protest against apartheid
Nelson Mandela was a civil rights leader in South Africa. He fought against apartheid,
a system where non-white citizens were segregated from whites and did not have equal rights.
He served a good portion of his life in prison for his protests, but became a symbol for his
people. Later he would become president of South Africa.
Where did Nelson Mandela grow up?
Nelson Mandela was born on July 18, 1918 in Mvezo, South Africa. His birth name is
Rolihlahla. He got the nickname Nelson from a teacher in school. Nelson was a member of
Thimbu royalty and his father was chief of the city of Mvezo. He attended school and later
college at the College of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand. At Witwatersrand,
Mandela got his law degree and would meet some of his fellow activists against apartheid.
What did Nelson Mandela do?
Nelson Mandela became a leader in the African National Congress (ANC). At first he
pushed hard for the congress and the protesters to follow Mohandas Gandhi's non-violence
approach. At one point he started to doubt that this approach would work and started up an
armed branch of the ANC. He planned to bomb certain buildings, but only the buildings. He
wanted to make sure that no one would be hurt. He was classified as a terrorist by the South
African government and sent to prison.
Mandela would spend the next 27 years in prison. His prison sentence brought
international visibility to the anti-apartheid movement. He was finally released through
international pressure in 1990.
Once released from prison, Nelson continued his campaign to end apartheid. His hard
work and life long effort paid off when all races were allowed to vote in the 1994 election.
Nelson Mandela won the election and became president of South Africa. There were several
times during the process where violence threatened to break out. Nelson was a strong force in
keeping the calm and preventing a major civil war
.
How long was Nelson Mandela in prison?
He spent 27 years in prison. He refused to bend on his principals in order to be
released and stated that he would die for his ideals. He wanted all people of all races to have
equal rights in South Africa.
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Globalisation
Globalisation is a process of deeper economic integration between countries and
regions of the world. The OECD defines globalization as “The geographic dispersion of
industrial and service activities, for example research and development, sourcing of inputs,
production and distribution, and the cross-border networking of companies, for example
through joint ventures and the sharing of assets."
Characteristics of globalisation
1. Greater trade in goods and services both between nations and within regions
2. An increase in transfers of capital including the expansion of foreign direct investment
(FDI) by trans-national companies (TNCs) and the rising influence of sovereign wealth funds
3. The development of global brands that serve markets in higher and lower income countries
4. Spatial division of labour– for example out-sourcing and off shoring of production and
support services as production supply-chains has become more international. As an example,
the iPhone is part of a complicated global supply chain. The product was conceived and
designed in Silicon Valley; the software was enhanced by software engineers working in
India. Most iPhones are assembled / manufactured in China and Taiwan by TNCs such as
FoxConn
5.High levels of labour migration within and between countries
6.New nations joining the world trading system. China and India joined the WTO in 1991,
Russia joined the WTO in 2012
7.A fast changing shift in the balance of economic and financial power from developed to
emerging economies and markets – i.e. a change in the centre of gravity in the world
economy
8.Increasing spending on investment, innovation and infrastructure across large parts of the
world
9.Globalisation is a process of making the world economy more inter-dependent
10.Many of the industrializing countries are winning a rising share of world trade and their
economies are growing faster than in richer developed nations especially after the global
financial crisis (GFC)
Globalisation to localisation?
Among the main drivers of globalisation are the following:

Containerisation – the costs of ocean shipping have come down, due to
containerization, bulk shipping, and other efficiencies. The lower cost of shipping
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





products around the global economy helps to bring prices in the country of
manufacture closer to prices in the export market, and makes markets more contestable
in an international sense.
Technological change – reducing the cost of transmitting and communicating
information – sometimes known as “the death of distance" – a key factor behind trade
in knowledge products using web technology
Economies of scale: Many economists believe that there has been an increase in the
minimum efficient scale (MES) associated with particular industries. If the MES is
rising, a domestic market may be regarded as too small to satisfy the selling needs of
these industries.
Opening up of global financial markets: This has included the removal of capital
controls in many countries facilitating foreign direct investment.
Differences in tax systems: The desire of corporations to benefit from lower unit
labour costs and other favourable factor endowments abroad and develop and exploit
fresh comparative advantages in production has encouraged countries to adjust their
tax systems to attract foreign direct investment (FDI)
Less protectionism - old forms of non-tariff protection such as import licencing and
foreign exchange controls have gradually been dismantled. Borders have opened and
average tariff levels have fallen – that said in the last few years there has been a rise in
protectionism as countries have struggled to achieve growth after the global financial
crisis.
The table below tracks average import tariffs since 1991.
Average Most Favoured Nation Applied Import Tariffs (%)199120012009
Developing Countries (134 countries)
27.7 13.5 9.9
Low Income Developing Countries (42 countries)
44.4 14.4 11.8
Source: World Bank
The breakdown of the Doha trade talks a few years back dashed hopes of a globally
based multi-lateral reduction in import tariffs and other trade barriers. In its place there has
been a rising number of bi-lateral trade deals and the emergence of regional trading
blocs such as NAFTA, MECOSUR and plans for a new Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
Globalization no longer necessarily requires a business to own or have a physical
presence in terms of either owning production plants or land in other countries, or even
exports and imports. Many businesses use licensing and franchising to help expand their
overseas operations.
Multinational companies
A multinational corporation/company is an organisation doing business in more than
one country. 'In other words it is an organisation or enterprise carrying on business in not only
the country where it is registered but also in several other countries. It may also be termed as
International Corporation, global giant and transnational corporation.
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According to the United Nations a multinational corporation is "an enterprise which
owns or controls production or service facilities outside the country in which it is based". In
the words of W H Moreland, "Multinational Corporations or Companies are those enterprises
whose management, ownership and controls are spread in more than one foreign country".
Thus a multinational company carries on business operations in two or more countries.
Its headquarters are located in one country (home country) but its activities are spread over in
other countries (host countries). MNC's may engage in various activities like exporting,
importing, manufacturing in different countries. It may also lend its patents, licences and
managerial services to firms in host countries.
Characteristics of Multinational Companies (MNCs)
The distinctive features of multinational companies are as follows.
1. Large Size:
A multinational company is generally big in size. Some of the multinational companies
own and control assets worth billions of dollars. Their annual sales turnover is more than the
gross national product of many small countries.
2. Worldwide operations:
A multinational corporation carries on business in more than one country.
Multinational corporations such as Coco cola have branches in as many as seventy countries
around the world.
3. International management:
The management of multinational companies are international in character. It operates
on the basis of best possible alternative available anywhere in the world. Its local subsidiaries
are managed generally by the nationals of the host country. For example the management of
Hindustan Lever lies with Indians. The parent company Unilever is in The United States of
America.
4. Mobility of resources:
The operation of multinational company involves the mobility of capital, technology,
entrepreneurship and other factors of production across the territories.
5. Integrated activities:
A multinational company is usually a complete organisation
manufacturing, marketing, research and development and other facilities.
comprising
6. Several forms:
A multinational company may operate in host countries in several ways i.e., branches,
subsidiaries, franchise, joint ventures. Turn key projects.
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Aims
Multinational companies make investments in different countries with the following
aims.
(a) To take tax benefits in host countries;
(b) To exploit the natural resources of the host country;
(c) To take advantage of Government concessions in host country;
(d) To mitigate the impact of regulations in the home country;
(e) To reduce cost of production by making use of cheap labour and low transportation
expenses in the host country.
(f) To gain dominance in foreign markets;
(g) To expand activities vertically.
SYLLABUS
MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM AD 1500:
HIS4C02 NEO-COLONIALISM: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES
Module I Post War Developments
The Super Powers – Cold War – containment of Communism – Marshal Plan – Truman
Doctrine – Warsaw Pact
Military Alliances – NATO – SEATO – Baghdad Pact – Cominform
Berlin after 1945 – the importance of Berlin Wall – Re-unification
Module II Contemporary South Asia
Neo-colonialism in South-Asian countries – Korean War – Vietnam War
The Political Unrest in West Asia – the creation of Israel – Arab- Israeli wars – Suez
crisis – P.L.O – al-Fatah – Hamas
The Gulf Wars – Iran- Iraq War of 1980 – The Kuwait War of 1990 – Attack on World
Trade Centre in U.S.A – Occupation of Afghanistan
Module III Changing World
Emergence of People’s Republic of China – Mao-Tse-Tung
Nationalist movement in Africa – Egypt – Nasar – Algeria – Congo – Forces against
African Unity – African National Congress – Mandela – Struggle against Apartheid
Globalization – Multi National Companies
BOOKS FOR STUDY
Module I
1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present
2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times
3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System
4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century
5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945
6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins
7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History
8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes
Module II
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1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present
2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times
3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System
4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century
5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945
6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins
7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History
8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes
Module III
1. Wallbank and Taylor, Civilization: Past and Present
2. C D M Ketelby, A History of Modern Times
3. Wallerstain Emmanuel, The Modern World System
4. Arrighi, The Long 20th Century
5. Peter Calvorressi, World Politics Since 1945
6. D F Fleming, Cold Wars and Origins
7. L J Halle, The Cold war as History
8. E J Hobsbaum , The Age of Extremes
9. Harold M Vinacke, A History of Far East in Modern Times
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