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Augustan Writers
In 49 BC Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon river in Northern Italy at the
head of a Roman army. This act marked the beginning of a civil war in
Rome. As well as being a general in the Roman army, Julius Caesar was a
member of the Roman senate (Rome was still a republic at the time).
Since the beginning of his political career in 73 BC the ambitious Caesar
had become one of the most powerful men in Rome through a
combination of bribery, intimidation, and clever political manoeuvring.
Caesar had also formed important political alliances with other powerful
Roman senators.
In 58 BC Caesar had been given command of a Roman army in Gaul
(France) which he used to conquer many of the Gallic tribes. During
Caesar’s absence his political enemies in Rome tried to undermine him
and by 49 BC many of Caesar’s former political allies had deserted him.
Believing that he could only regain his power by using force, Caesar
marched on Rome with his army in an attempt to have himself established
as a dictator.
The Roman senate (and army) was split down the middle by this civil war
but the forces opposing Caesar were led by the equally brilliant general
Pompey the Great. After a year of fighting, Caesar finally defeated
Pompey’s army at the battle of Pharsalus. Caesar then set himself up as
dictator of Rome. Caesar, however, still had many enemies and he was
assassinated at the theatre on 15 March 44 BC.
Another civil war now broke out between Caesar’s assassins and his most
loyal supporters, men like Marc Antony and Octavian (Caesar’s grandnephew). This civil war was won quickly by Marc Antony and Octavian
but the two men then competed with each other for control of the Roman
Republic and a third civil war broke out. Octavian defeated Marc Antony
at the battle of Actium in 31 BC and was hailed as emperor of Rome.
Octavian now adopted the title Augustus.
Unlike Caesar before him, Augustus had the support of most Roman
citizens because they were happy to have political stability and peace
after so many years of civil war. Augustus, however, needed to maintain
this goodwill so he designed a public image for himself as a benign
dictator. Augustus’ public image can be summed up as follows: He styled
himself as a fatherly figure to the Roman people and promoted strong
family values. He encouraged close observance of Roman religion and
portrayed himself as a deeply devout man. He also advocated a simple,
traditional Roman lifestyle.
Unlike more modern dictators, Augustus did not have access to mass
media such as television and radio. Instead, he used poets and writers to
spread his propaganda. In return for Augustus’ patronage these writers
composed poetry and prose which praised Augustus and his
achievements; and outlined his belief in a need to return to a simpler,
more traditional lifestyle. The aim of this course is to study the work of
some of these poets/writers.
Course Outline
The four poets prescribed for this course are Virgil, Horace, Propertius,
and Ovid. Livy, who wrote in prose, must also be studied.
1. Virgil (Publius Vergillius Maro) is probably the most famous of all
Roman poets. He was born in Mantua in Northern Italy in 70 BC .
Virgil was educated in Cremona and Milan before finally moving
to Rome, where he spent most of his adult life. While in Rome,
Virgil met the influential friend of Augustus, Gaius Maecenas. It
was Maecenas who first introduced Virgil to Augustus. Virgil is
most famous for his epic poem the Aeneid but he composed many
other poems, including the Eclogues and the Georgics. It was, in
fact, the publication of the Eclogues which brought Virgil to
Augustus’ attention. The poems by Virgil which you will be
studying on this course are: Orpheus and Eurydice, Rustic
Happiness, and A Farmer’s Calendar (from the Georgics). The
Song of Silenus and The Birth of the Saviour (from the
Eclogues). You will also be studying extracts from The Aeneid.
2. Horace was born in Southern Italy in 65 BC. He was educated in
both Rome and Athens and served for a short time in the army
before returning to Rome and taking up a senior civil service job.
Shortly after taking up his new job, Horace began to write poetry
and his work was soon noticed by Virgil. Virgil introduced Horace
to Maecenas, and he persuaded Horace to devote his time to poetry
by making him independently wealthy. Maecenas did this by
giving Horace a large farm outside of Rome. The poems by Horace
which you will be studying on this course are: Gather ye
Rosebuds, We all must die, Cease to Mourn, Enjoy the Present
Hour, A Quiet Life, Rustic Joys, The Good Man Fears Nothing,
Enjoy your possessions while they are yours, and An Ode to
Spring (from Odes and Epodes). The Town Mouse and the
Country Mouse, The Bore, and The Journey to Brundisium
(from Satires and Epistles).
3. Propertius was born sometime between 54 and 47 BC. Of all the
poets in Maecenas’ circle, Propertius was the most independent. He
even criticises Augustus (albeit mildly) in some of his poetry. It is
as a love poet that Propertius is best known and some of his poems
were dedicated to his mistress Cynthia. The poems by Propertius
which you will be studying on this course are: Two Requests,
Susceptibility, Gone, Gone to Clitumnus, Cynthia, Cynthia is
dead, Love and Peace, and The God of Love.
4. Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso) was born in 43 BC. Interestingly,
most of the information we have about his life comes from one of
his own poems. Ovid was educated in Rome and worked for just a
few years before becoming a full-time poet. Ovid’s poetry was not
confined to any one theme but he did compose a large amount of
love poetry. Ovid was exiled from Rome in AD 8 never to return.
While in exile, Ovid wrote a poem in which he claimed that he had
been banished for, “a poem and a mistake”. What Ovid meant by
“a mistake” is uncertain, but the poem he was referring to was The
Art of Love. For some reason, known only to Augustus, the poem
was not to the emperor’s liking. Ovid died in exile in AD 17. The
poems by Ovid which you will be studying on this course are:
Baucis and Philemon, Ovid’s Misery in Exile, Myself, Advice to
Women, The Art of Love, and Unfair.
5. Livy (Titus Livius) was born in Patavium in Northern Italy in 59
BC. Livy spent all of his adult life researching and writing his Ab
urbe condita libri (Books from the foundation of the city), a history
of Rome from its foundation to 9 BC, in 142 books. Unfortunately,
only a fraction of his work survives today. There are six extracts
from Livy’s history on your course. They are: Livy’s Preface, The
Sabine Women, Class Warfare, Horatius on the Bridge, The
Romans defeated by Hannibal at Cannae, and The Defeat of
Hannibal.
The Song of Silenus
Satyrs – According to Greek/Roman mythology, Satyrs were wild
creatures, half man, half animal with insatiable sexual appetites. Satyrs
were followers of the god Dionysus (Bacchus). Dionysus was the god of
wine and madness but he is also associated with nature.
Aegle – A Naiad (Nymph). Nymphs were female demi-gods who were
always described as young, beautiful women. Just like satyrs, nymphs are
associated with both nature and the god Dionysus.
Saturn – One of the very first gods to rule over earth. He was supposed
to have ruled during a golden age.
Hylas – One of the Argonauts. He disappeared during the quest for the
golden fleece when he was dragged into a river by some nymphs. The rest
of the Argonauts, not knowing what had happened to him, forced the
locals to continue searching for him after they left and continued on their
quest.
Atlanta – Milanion wanted to marry her but she challenged him to a race
for her hand in marriage. Milanion won the race, but only because he
dropped three golden apples which Atlanta stopped to pick up.
Elegiac Poetry – So called because the poems are divided into elegiac
couplets. Elegiac poetry is not confined to any one theme or themes.
Hesiod – One of the earliest known Greek poets.
The Birth of the Saviour
Sicilian muse – This is a reference to the Sicilian poet Theocritus,
inventor of the bucolic (or pastoral) genre of poetry. Pastoral poems are
primarily concerned with praising the beauty of the natural world.
Sibylline song – The sibyl was a priestess in ancient Rome with the gift
of prophecy.
Lucina – The goddess of Childbirth.
Tiphys – One of the Argonauts, specifically the helmsman of the ship,
the Argo.
Purple dye – In the ancient world, purple was the colour of royalty /
authority.
Orpheus – Also one of the Argonauts. Orpheus was the son of Apollo
and was famous for his singing, which had magical powers.
Linus – Another son of Apollo. Linus was a famous musician.
Calliope – The mother of Orpheus.
Pan – The god of Shepherds. Pan was a famed musician and is a very
appropriate god to appear in a pastoral poem.
NOTE: The Treaty of Brundisium was agreed between Octavian and
Marc Antony in 40 BC. Under the terms of the agreement, Marc Antony
was given control of the eastern half of the empire, while Octavian
controlled the west.
.
Pastoral Poetry
Pastoral poetry was invented by the Sicilian poet Theocritus in the third
century BC. Pastoral poems do not normally contain any strong moral or
political message. Their primary aim is to praise the beauty of the
natural world. Virgil’s eclogues take nature as a theme, but it is not the
only, or even major theme.
The Song of Silenus - In many ways, the song of Silenus is a pastoral
poem. The protagonist, Silenus, is a satyr. A mythical creature strongly
associated with nature. The scene in the poem takes place outdoors and
Virgil describes, “Sylvan fauns”, “Savage beasts” and “Nodding forests”
gathering round to hear the song of Silenus. As night falls Virgil
describes the cattle returning from their fields. “And now the setting sun
had warned the swain to call his counted cattle from the plain”. This
however, is where the similarity with Pastoral poetry ends. The actual
song of Silenus (which takes up most of the poem) contains a message.
Virgil is suggesting that poetry, pastoral or otherwise, should contain a
grand or noble theme. Silenus, who may represent Virgil, sings about
the creation of the earth. “He sung the secret seeds of natures frame, how
seas, and earth, and air, and active flame, fell through the mighty void,
and in their fall, were blindly gathered in this goodly wall”, the birth of
man, “From thence the birth of man the song pursued”, and a host of
other subjects from Greek / Roman mythology.
Birth of the Saviour – The opening lines of the poem reveal Virgil’s
agenda. Virgil is going to attempt a “rather more exalted theme”.
Virgil’s poem is going to contain a serious political message, “ If we must
sing of woodlands, let them be such as may do a consul honour”. Virgil
appears to be praising Augustus in the birth of the saviour (or at least his
unborn child), but the subject of his poem is actually uncertain. Like the
song of Silenus, the Birth of the Saviour contains many of the elements of
a Pastoral poem “waving corn will slowly flood the plains with gold,
grapes hang in ruby clusters on the neglected thorn, and honeydew exude
from the hard trunk of the oak”. Virgil, however, also mentions some
contemporary political events. He makes a reference to the consul Pollio
and the Treaty of Brundisium. If Augustus and his unborn child are the
subject of the poem, then it is not surprising that Augustus had Maecenas
recruit Virgil after the publication of the Eclogues.
The Georgics
The Georgics were composed by Virgil between 36 – 29 BC. By this
time, Virgil had become a member of the circle of Maecenas and it was
Maecenas who asked Virgil to compose the Georgics. The Georgics are
not classified as pastoral poems even though they bear many similarities
to this genre. At the time the Georgics were composed, Octavian (he had
not yet taken the title Augustus) was engaged in a propaganda war with
Marc Antony.
The Georgics extol the virtues of a simple rustic lifestyle far removed
from politics and war. The real situation in Rome/Italy at the time was
radically different from Virgil’s idyllic image. Many landowners had
been dispossessed during the civil wars (including Virgil’s father) and
many other small farmers had been bought out by wealthier landowners.
Italy’s agricultural land was divided mostly into large estates (latifundia)
rather than modest farms. These estates were not worked by Roman
citizens but by large numbers of slaves.
Many of these dispossessed farmers gravitated towards Italy’s major
cities, especially Rome itself. There were not enough jobs available for
these men and Rome experienced a large surge in its number of
unemployed citizens.
The Georgics consists of four very long poems. You are required to study
extracts from Georgics 1, 2 and 4. These extracts are, Rustic Happiness
from Georgics 2, Orpheus and Eurydice from Georgics 4 and A
Farmer’s Calendar from Georgics 1.
Rustic Happiness
“Whose holy fillets wear” – A fillet was a headband worn by Roman
priests.
“Where Bacchanals are sung by Spartan maids” – Bacchanals are hymns
sung in honour of the god Bacchus (Dionysus). The reference to Spartan
maids is also very appropriate. The classical Spartans were renowned for
their simple tastes and lifestyle.
“Whose mind unmoved the bribes of courts can see, their glittering baits,
and purple slavery” – Virgil is referring to political life in Rome. Roman
senators had purple stripes on their togas and bribery in Roman courts
was extremely common, especially in politically sensitive cases.
“While from both benches, with redoubled sounds, the applause of lords
and commoners abounds” – This is a reference to the two tiers in the
Roman political system. The Patricians (wealthy, noble families) made up
the senate, while the Plebeians (common Roman citizens) made up the
assembly.
“Such was the life the frugal Sabines led; so Remus and his brother-god
were bred” – The Sabines were the people who inhabited the seven hills
of Rome prior to the city’s foundation. Remus’ brother-god is Romulus,
the founder of Rome.
Ovid’s Misery in Exile
“Would you bid Priam laugh” – Priam was the king of Troy during the
Trojan war. He had many sons, all of whom were killed during the war.
“Childless Niobe” – Niobe was a mortal woman with 12 children (6 boys,
6 girls). She mocked the goddess Leto for only having two children, the
gods Apollo and Artemis. In retaliation, Leto sent Apollo to shoot down
all of Niobe’s sons and Artemis to kill all of her daughters.
“This barbarous nook confined” – Ovid is referring to Tomis, the town
where he was exiled. Tomis was at the very edge of the Roman Empire
far from any major cultural centre.
“The fortitude by Socrates possessed” – The Greek philosopher Socrates
was executed in 399 BC after being found guilty of impiety by an
Athenian court. Even though Socrates was facing the death penalty he
refused to renounce his philosophical beliefs during the trial.
“Heaven pronounced him so” – During his trial, Socrates claimed that the
oracle of Apollo at Delphi had pronounced that there was no man wiser
than Socrates.
Augustus (63 BC – AD 14)
Octavian was the son of a junior Roman senator who was related to Julius
Caesar by marriage. Julius Caesar had no sons and when his will was
opened after his death it was discovered that he had named his 17 year
old grand-nephew as his successor. Octavian immediately moved to
Rome and allied himself with Marc Antony and Aemilius Lepidus. This
tripartite alliance was known as the Triumvirate.
Many Roman senators declared their support for Octavian probably
believing that they could control the young man. Octavian, however,
turned out to be very politically astute and quickly expanded his power
base. The Triumvirs spent the next few years waging a civil war against
Caesar’s assassins (Tillius Cimber, Servillius Casca, Cassius Longinus
and Iunius Brutus). As soon as the war was over the Triumvirs began to
squabble amongst themselves. Marc Antony and Octavian turned against
Lepidus and had him banished from Rome. The two men then divided the
empire between them in the Treaty of Brundisium (40 BC). Fighting
finally broke out between Octavian and Marc Antony in 31 BC and
Octavian quickly emerged victorious. This meant that by 30 BC Octavian
was in sole control of the Roman Empire.
Theoretically, Rome was still a republic after 30 BC but, in reality,
Octavian wielded absolute power. In 27 BC the senate gave Octavian the
title Augustus and formally transferred many of its powers to him. Apart
from relatively minor skirmishes on the borders of the empire, Augustus’
reign as the first Roman emperor was essentially peaceful. Augustus
travelled widely throughout the empire and spent vast sums of money on
public buildings in Rome itself. Augustus was, however, plagued by the
problem of who to choose as his successor. Augustus had a daughter
called Julia but no sons. Augustus chose a number of male relatives to be
his heir but they all died before him. When Augustus died in AD 14 he
was succeeded by his daughter’s husband Tiberius.
Orpheus and Eurydice
Eurydice was the wife of Orpheus, the son of Apollo. Eurydice was killed
by a snake bite but Orpheus’ love for her was such that he travelled to the
underworld to rescue her from death. Pluto and Proserpina were
enchanted by Orpheus’ music and agreed to release the soul of Eurydice.
There was one condition though. Orpheus was warned not to look behind
him until he had left the underworld. Orpheus, however, could not resist
the temptation of checking to see if Eurydice was following him and
when he looked back Eurydice was lost to him forever.
“the peaks of Rhodope: high Pangaea …… Attic Orithyia”
Rhodope and Pangaea are both mountains in Thrace.
Rhesus was a mythical prince of Thrace.
The Getae were a (real) tribe that lived along the Lower Danube.
Hebrus is a river in Thrace.
Orithyia was an Athenian princess who was kidnapped by the North wind
and taken to Thrace.
“the furies with steel-blue snakes entwined” – The furies were terrible
creatures responsible for carrying out the curses of mortals.
“Ixion’s wheel” – Ixion was a criminal whose punishment was to suffer
continuous torture on a wheel.
“over the pools of Avernus” – Avernus was a lake at the entrance to the
underworld. The rivers Styx and Cocytus flowed into this lake.
“through the snows of Tanais, over frost-bound Riphaean plateaux” – The
Tanais is the modern river Don which flows through central Russia. The
Riphaean plateaux is a reference to a mythical mountain range far to the
North.
A Farmer’s Calendar
“joyously wreathed the poops” – A poop is a raised deck on a ship. This
line is a reference to the custom of Roman sailors of hanging garlands of
flowers on the prow of a ship after a long voyage.
“whirling the hempen thong of a Balearic sling” – A sling was a weapon
used for hurling stones. Slings were used as a military weapon in ancient
times but were also used by shepherds to defend their flocks/herds from
wild animals.
“Athos he fells or Rhodope or high Ceraunia” – Athos and Rhodope are
mountains in Thrace. Acroceraunia is a large hill in Epirus (Greece).
Virgil
The Georgics are didactic poems, i.e. their aim is to to teach the reader
about a particular subject. The subject in the case of the Georgics is
farming/agriculture. The Georgics also fit neatly into Augustus’ social
programme (They were finished shortly after his defeat of Marc Antony).
Many Italians had been dispossessed from their land during the civil wars
and Augustus was trying to encourage Roman citizens to return to
farming as an occupation.
Virgil’s Georgics also act as a lecture on morality. The innocent farmer
(of the type described in Rustic Happiness) possesses simple virtues and
is not corrupted by wealth or power. Augustus himself promoted, and
claimed to practice, the old-fashioned Roman values of frugality,
decency, honesty and family values.
The Georgics can also be appreciated purely for their poetic excellence.
Virgil writes very descriptive poetry and Lyne compares Virgil’s poetry
to landscape painting. It is also important to note that when Virgil wrote
the Georgics he was a member of the circle of Maecenas and actually
dedicated the poems to his patron.
Pathos
Pathos is the ability of a poet to create feelings of sadness or grief in their
poems. The best example of Virgil’s pathos is Orpheus and Eurydice.
The main theme of the poem is grief. Orpheus grieves for the loss of his
wife not just once but twice, “Orpheus, sick to the heart, sought comfort
of his hollow lyre: You, sweet wife he sang alone on the lonely shore,
you at the dawn of day he sang, at day’s decline you”. Orpheus’ sadness
is compounded by the fact that he is responsible for failing to rescue
Eurydice from the underworld, “Who, she cried, has doomed me to
misery”. With great emotion, Virgil describes Orpheus’ feeling of
helplessness, “What could he do, where go, his wife twice taken from
him? What lament would move death now? What deities hear his song?”.
Orpheus’ anguish after the second loss of Eurydice is even more
pronounced than after her original death, “No love, no marriage could
turn his mind away from grief: Alone through Arctic ice, through the
snows of Tanais, over frost-bound Riphaean plateaux. He ranged
bewailing his lost Eurydice and the wasted Bounty of Death”. Orpheus
wanders aimlessly consumed by his grief and even his own death does
not release him from his misery, “But even then that head, plucked from
the marble-pale neck, and rolling down mid-stream on the river Hebrusthat voice, that cold, cold tongue, cried out Eurydice! Cried poor
Eurydice! As the soul of the singer fled, And the banks of the river
echoed, echoed Eurydice!”.
Simile
One of the distinguishing characteristics of Virgil’s poetry is his
extensive use of similes. This is most in evidence in Orpheus and
Eurydice and the extracts from the Aeneid. In Orpheus and Eurydice,
Virgil compares Orpheus’ song to the song of grief a nightingale sings
when she has lost her young, “As a nightingale he sang that sorrowing
under a poplar’s shade laments the young she has lost, whom a heartless
ploughman has noticed and dragged from the nest unfledged; and the
nightingale weeps all night, on a branch repeating the piteous song”. In
The Underworld he compares the gathering of the souls in the underworld
to the falling of leaves in Autumn and the migration of a flock of birds,
“All a great multitude came pouring down, Brothers and husbands, and
the proud-souled heroes, Life’s labour done: and boys and unwed
maidens and the young men by whose flame-funeral parents had wept.
Many as leaves that fall gently in autumn when the sharp cold comes or
all the birds that flock at the turn o’ the year over the ocean to the lands of
light”.
N.B. Most of Virgil’s similes are drawn from nature. Virgil often uses
such similes, even in poems that do not take nature as a theme. This
shows his powerful affinity with nature.
Atmosphere
Virgil is renowned for his ability to create atmosphere through the expert
use of imagery. His description of the underworld in Orpheus and
Eurydice is particularly atmospheric, “That grove where fear hangs like a
black fog”.
“about them lay the black ooze, the crooked reeds of Cocytus, bleak the
marsh that barred them in with its stagnant water”.
Virgil and Nature
Virgil’s feeling for nature is such that he avails of every opportunity in
his poetry to express his love of the natural world. Rustic Happiness and
A Farmer’s Calendar are the poems where this is most evident. The main
theme of Rustic Happiness is the rejection of an urban life in favour of a
simple rural existence. The poet wishes to, “lead a soft, secure inglorious
life” in, “a country cottage near a crystal flood”. The innocent farmer,
“hears from far, of tumults, and descents, and distant war”. Virgil
criticises the, “Patriot fools” who aspire to popular praise and describes a
life of political involvement as, “Purple slavery”. Virgil’s view of rural
life is, of course, idealised. In Rustic Happiness, Virgil describes the
wonderful (and unrealistic) fertility of the land, “A crop so plenteous as
the land to load, O’ercome the crowded barns, and lodge on ricks
abroad”.
“His kine with swelling udders ready stand, And, lowing for the pail,
invite the milker’s hand.”
Virgil’s image of rural life is so distorted that he even compares the
lifestyle of the happy farmer to the mythical golden age associated with
the god Saturn, “And this rude life our homely father’s chose …….. Ere
Saturn’s rebel son usurped the skies ……… The good old god his hunger
did assuage with roots and herbs, and gave the Golden Age”.
A Farmer’s Calendar is more realistic in its description of a farmer’s
work during the different seasons. Admittedly, Virgil’s view of a farmer’s
life during winter is still idyllic, “For winter is the farmer’s holiday. In
this chill time farmers enjoy their gains, and merrily feast together: winter
cheer invites, dispelling care”. Virgil, however, gives an honest
description of the hard labour required at other times of the year. In
midsummer the farmer must work even though it is very hot, “Plough
when you have to strip for it, strip to sow!”. In spring and autumn bad
weather can undo the hard work the farmer has done, “Down pour the
heavens sheer, In mighty flood sweeping away glad crops and labours of
the ox”. Virgil also displays his skill as a master of natural imagery, the
landscape painter, “Deep rivers rise in thundering spate: the seas breathe
and boom in the narrows. Jove himself, in blackest darkness of the stormcloud, wields with flickering hand his bolt, at whose dread shock Earth
trembles, wild things scurry, and stark fear lays prostrate, nation-wide,
the hearts of men”.
Past Questions
2000 – (a) What evidence do you find in the prescribed poems of Virgil’s
feeling for farming and the countryside? (40)
(b) Do you think his view of rural life is realistic? (10)
2001 – comment on how Virgil makes the story of Orpheus and Eurydice
so moving and memorable. (50)
2002 – (a) Discuss the range of themes treated by Virgil in the extracts on
your course. (40)
(b) Which is your favourite extract from Virgil? Give reasons for your
choice. (10)
2003 – “The firstborn of the new age is already on his way from high
heaven down to earth” (Virgil’s Eclogue IV)
(a) Describe what the world will be like during this new age. (25)
(b) Do you think Virgil wishes us to take literally this vision of a new
age? (10)
(c) What events of Virgil’s time are reflected in this poem? (15)
The Aeneid
Virgil composed the Aeneid between 30/29 – 19 BC (the year of his
death). The Aeneid is an epic poem – the first Roman epic – and is
recognised as Virgil’s masterpiece. Aeneas, the hero of the poem, is one
of the Trojan warriors who fought against the Greeks during the war of
Troy. The Aeneid tells the tale of Aeneas’ journey to Italy after the fall of
Troy. According to Virgil’s account, Aeneas’ descendants will found the
city of Rome. The Aeneid is a blatant work of propaganda. There are
many indirect, and even a few direct, references to Augustus in the poem.
The character of Aeneas bears a striking resemblance to Augustus,
particularly in his pietas. Pietas was a Roman concept for which there is
no direct English translation. Someone who is pius is both dutiful and
obedient. They have a duty to their family and the state and are obedient
to the laws and to the gods. The similarity to Augustus’ public image is
immediate and obvious. In the Aeneid, Virgil also describes the new
golden age which will begin with the birth of Aeneas’ distant descendant,
Augustus (Birth of the Saviour).
Virgil read extracts from the Aeneid to Augustus during its composition
and the emperor loved it. When Virgil died in 19 BC his last request was
to have the manuscript of the, still unfinished, Aeneid destroyed but
Augustus prevented this from happening. Augustus ensured that the epic
poem was published after Virgil’s death.
There are two extracts from the Aeneid on your course. They are, The
Underworld and Hercules and Cacus.
Hercules and Cacus
At this point in the Aeneid, Aeneas and his men have travelled to
Pallanteum (the future site of Rome) where they meet the local king,
Evander. There is an altar dedicated to Hercules there and Evander
proceeds to explain the reason for its existence. According to myth, one
of the labours of Hercules was to steal the cattle of Geyron, a threeheaded ogre. After killing Geyron and taking his cattle Hercules began to
drive the herd back to Greece, stopping to rest at Pallanteum. Unknown to
Hercules, a monster called Cacus lived in a cave nearby. During the
night, Cacus stole eight of the cattle and took them back to his cave,
barring it with a boulder. When Hercules realises the animals are missing
he forces his way into the cave and strangles Cacus.
The tale of Hercules and Cacus is allegorical. Hercules, who represents
Augustus, defeats his evil enemy Cacus. Like a biblical character with
justice and righteousness on his side, Hercules strikes down Cacus the
wrongdoer. This story is a reminder of Augustus’ defeat of his enemies in
the civil wars. Evander tells Aeneas that, each year, the citizens of
Pallanteum worship at the altar of Hercules to commemorate his victory
over Cacus. After the battle of Actium, Augustus erected a monument at
the site of the battle to celebrate his victory over Marc Antony.
Important quotes:
“We are grateful men, saved from a cruel danger; we pay these rites each
year, each year renewing a worship justly done”.
“But time at last brought us the help we prayed for; a great avenger, a
god, came to our rescue”.
“Ever since then we keep this day, rejoicing in honour of our
deliverance”.
The Underworld
The Underworld is an extract from book six of the Aeneid. In book six,
Aeneas travels to the underworld to visit his deceased father, who has
been appearing to him in dreams. Aeneas does not make the journey
alone, he is helped by the Sibyl, a Roman priestess with the gift of
prophecy.
We must examine this extract on two levels. Firstly, an appreciation of
the poet’s skill and secondly, the moral commentary which the extract
contains. This extract is similar to Orpheus and Eurydice in its
atmospheric description of the underworld. Aeneas and the Sibyl
approach the entrance to the underworld through a, “featureless land”,
only dimly lit by, “a wavering moon”. The creatures which inhabit the
underworld are grotesque and even the trees are misshapen – “twisted
beasts” and “a large black knotted elm”. Charon, the ferryman is a
shabbily dressed old man but Virgil also describes his menacing and
powerful aura.
This extract also contains a reasonably subtle message. When Aeneas
enters the underworld he encounters war, “the great murderer” and
“Discord, daft with blood ribbons on her serpent hair” (civil war). Virgil
also makes a reference to the soldiers who lost their lives in the civil
wars, “The young men by whose flame-funeral parents had wept”. Virgil
is denouncing war, particularly civil war. Many commentators believe
that Virgil was a pacifist because of passages like this one, and because of
his preference for non-violent themes in his poetry.
“Fronting the very vestibule of Orcus” – The entrance to the underworld.
“The vengeful cares” – negative emotions.
“Sad Eld” – Old age.
“And these steel bowers the furies deck for bridal” – An image of the
furies preparing cells for their victims.
“Scylla’s spread their twin shapes” –
(1) Scylla was the daughter of the legendary king Nisus. She was
turned into a bird as punishment for betraying her father to his
enemies.
(2) A mythical monster with six heads.
Publius Ovidius Naso
Ovid’s favourite theme is romantic relationships between men and
women. Ovid’s poetry, however, reveals his own distinctive view of the
game of love. Ovid was well known for being irreverent (i.e. making fun
of serious subjects) and this is reflected in some of the poems on your
course, especially Advice to Women and The Art of Love. There may seem
to be a serious or cynical tone in these poems but Ovid is probably just
trying to be funny. Advice to Women, for example, appears to be
chauvinistic and patronising but it would be typical of Ovid to tease his
female readers in this manner. In the same fashion, The Art of Love is
probably supposed to be amusing rather than cynical. Ovid’s witty
observations are designed to be familiar to their audience, stereotypes or
not, “She’ll ask your judgement, as a connoisseur, then kiss you, then
suggest you buy for her”. Much of Ovid’s poetry is dedicated to a
(possibly fictional) mistress called Corinna whom we know very little
about.
Ovid’s poetry can also be distinguished by its clarity and conciseness.
Ovid is rarely obscure in his poetry. The same cannot be said for others,
like Virgil. This clarity is evident in all of the poems on your course.
Ovid is also urbane (sophisticated/cosmopolitan) and erudite. His
erudition is apparent in Baucis and Philemon. Ovid had an impressive
knowledge of mythology and all of the characters in the Metamorphoses
are drawn from Greek/Roman myths. Ovid’s cultural sophistication is
displayed in Ovid’s Misery in Exile. Ovid’s exile to Tomis was a cruel
punishment for such a cultured man. It was right at the edge of the
empire, the inhabitants did not even speak Latin, and , apparently, it did
not even have a library! – “Ill fares the bard in this unlettered land, None
to consult, and none to understand. The purest verse has no admirers here,
their own rude language only suits their ear”. Ovid is also painfully
conscious of his vocation, which is to compose poetry and he is unable to
resist it, “even here the muse disdains confinement, and attempts her
former strains”.
Ovid wrote the majority of his poetry in elegiac couplets. A form of verse
which was most commonly reserved for love poems. Ovid, however,
wrote poems in elegiac couplets on subjects other than love (eg: Ovid’s
Misery in Exile). In fact, Ovid once claimed that, “elegy owes as much to
me as epic does to Virgil”.
Ovid has been described as Anti-Augustan, but this is an unfair
accusation. Ovid did not write poetry with the aim of criticising
Augustus, he could be more fairly described as unaugustan. Meaning
that he did not write poems in praise of the emperor. Ovid was not a
member of the circle of Maecenas, although he did know the imperial
family (quite well) before he was exiled. Ovid’s family was wealthy and
this meant that he did not require the patronage of Maecenas.
Past Questions
2003 – From your study of his poems on your course, would you agree
that Ovid’s poetry reveals a deep understanding of women?
2001 – From the poems on your course, what opinion of Ovid’s character
have you formed?
2000 – “…but what has captivated many generations is his glorious skill
as a teller of tales”.
Discuss this comment with reference to Ovid’s poem Baucis and
Philemon.
1999 – (a) Discuss the range of interests that Ovid shows in his poetry.
(b) In what ways is Ovid’s poetry different from that of either
Virgil or Horace?
Ode to Spring
This poem is dedicated to spring but spring, in the context of the poem, is
symbolic. It represents birth and life. The poem begins with a description
of the retreat of winter and the onset of spring. Horace describes spring as
a time of joy when the nymphs and Graces play without fear. Spring,
however, passes quickly and is replaced by summer which, in turn, gives
way to Autumn. Finally, winter appears again when, “nothing stirs”.
After describing the passage of the seasons, Horace reflects on the
transient nature of life and advises his readers to, “feast then thy heart”.
Horace then discusses death, describing it as, “equal judgement”. The
poet ends the poem by emphasising the fact that death is inescapable.
“Graces three” – The three Graces were the personification of charm,
grace and beauty. Horace’s reference to the Graces is appropriate on two
different levels:
(1) The Graces had a great love of poetry, singing and dancing.
(2) They were supposed to be responsible for making the flowers grow
in spring.
Tullus, Ancus and Torquatus were all kings of Rome.
Hippolytus was the son of Theseus. Hippolytus was a devoted follower
of the virgin goddess Artemis (Diana), who famously refused the
advances of Aphrodite.
Pirithous travelled to the underworld with the great hero Theseus.
Theseus was able to return to the land of the living but Pirithous was not.
Propertius
Propertius was an accomplished and popular Roman, elegiac love poet.
Many of his most famous love poems are dedicated to his mistress
Cynthia. Propertius’ poems are usually specific rather than general,
focusing on his attitude towards women and his relationship with his
mistress. Propertius also makes it clear, in his ‘Cynthian poems’, that he
is a slave to his mistress and his desires.
Propertius did mix with the circle of Maecenas but his ties to this group
were very loose. A small number of Propertius’ poems contain Augustan
propaganda but he also expressed some independent political views in his
poetry.
Propertius’ poems are deeply personal, often revealing intimate details
about the poet himself. Propertius was also fond of mythical references in
his poetry. The prescribed poems on your course follow a clear timeline.
The poems, Two Requests, Susceptibility, and Gone discuss Propertius’
obsession with the opposite sex and his string of failed relationships.
Gone to Clitumnus, Cynthia, and Cynthia is dead are all dedicated to
his mistress. These poems show a much more mature man involved in a
serious, monogamous relationship. Love and Peace and The God of
Love will be considered separately.
Past Questions
2002:
(a) What attitude to death, and to war, do you find in the poetry of
Propertius on your course? (40)
(b) What is your opinion of Propertius’ attitude to death? (10)
2000:
What is your impression of Propertius from the poems on your
course? (50)
HORACE
The Satires
The Journey to Brundisium, The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse,
and The Bore, although classified as satires, are only mildly satirical. Of
all the prescribed poems by Horace the satires reveal the most personal
information about the poet. The satires are also humorous and lighthearted, in contrast to Horace’s more sombre Odes and Epodes.
Based on a reading of The Journey to Brundisium and The Bore, Horace
can be fairly accused of being a snob. Horace’s criticism of Canusium at
the end of The Journey to Brundisium is cutting. The poet is distinctly
unimpressed with this backward, rural town where, ‘water is dearer far
than wine’. Even the name of the town meets with Horace’s disapproval,
‘At a small town, whose name my verse (so barbarous it is) can’t
rehearse’. Horace, used to his sophisticated lifestyle in Rome, is
dismissive of the rude simplicity of Canusium.
Again, in The Bore, Horace’s elitism is apparent. In the poem, Horace
implies that he is everything that the bore is not. Horace’s victim in this
satire is trying to befriend the poet, knowing that he is a prominent
member of Rome’s elite, literary circle. Horace mocks the bore for
claiming that he is an intellectual and a gifted poet and is smug in the
knowledge that he is, in fact, both intellectual and talented.
The three prescribed satires also provide many examples of Horace’s
sense of humour. Horace had a keen eye for detail and can describe the
most trivial of incidents in an amusing fashion. In Journey to Brundisium,
although the poet is unable to sleep on the barge, he can still see the
humour in the situation, ‘Could we have fallen asleep at last! But, what
with humming, croaking, biting, gnats, frogs, and all their plagues
uniting, These tuneful natives of the lake conspired to keep us broad
awake’. Horace is also greatly amused when, at Beneventum, his host sets
himself on fire.
The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse, although poking fun at the
upper classes in Rome, also contains a serious warning about the dangers
of life in Rome for the social/political elite. Horace’s description of the
town mouse bustling about, ‘like a waiter in a short jacket’, is particularly
amusing.
The fairly biting satire in The Bore is tempered by its humorous tone. The
bore is ridiculed viciously by the poet but it is done in a manner which is
designed to make the reader laugh. Horace’s (mock) despair when he
realises that he cannot get rid of the bore is described with great wit, ‘I
dropped my ears like a sullen donkey when he feels too heavy a load on
his back’. As well as its obvious humour The Bore gives a fascinating
insight into the informal nature of power in Rome.
Propaganda
Propaganda in Horace’s poetry is both infrequent and subtle. The four
most significant poems to consider under this heading are The Town
Mouse and the Country Mouse, Journey to Brundisium, Rustic Joys, and
Cease to Mourn. Of the four relevant poems Rustic Joys is the most
important.
Rustic Joys combines many of the themes contained in Virgil’s poems
Rustic Happiness and A Farmer’s Calendar. In the poem, Horace
describes the idyllic life of a simple farmer. This man has no interest in
war or foreign travel or, ‘contentious suits in law’. The farmer works on,
‘his own hereditary land’ assisted by his, ‘frugal, chaste, industrious
wife’. He does not dine on exotic foods imported from the far reaches of
the empire. He prefers the produce from his own farm, ‘unbought
dainties’. The farmer is not like the usurer (money lender) Alfius, who
wishes to buy a house in the country but whose, ‘desires of sordid gain’
prevent him from leaving the city.
In The Journey to Brundisium, Horace alludes to his patron Maecenas
describing him as a messenger of peace. It was hardly unusual for a poet
of Horace’s time to praise his patron but Maecenas was closely connected
to Augustus and is acting as his messenger. This fact would not have
escaped the attention of Horace’s readers.
In Cease to Mourn, Horace, in an attempt to console his friend Valgius,
refers to a recent Roman military victory, ‘And sing with me great
Caesar’s trophies won from conquered realms beneath the Orient sun’.
The reference is appropriate because of the fact that Valgius was a
Roman senator with previous military experience. Horace’s choice,
however, also serves to glorify Augustus, the’Great Caesar’.
The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse highlights the benefits of rural
life over life in the city. Horace acknowledges the wealth and
sophistication of the town mouse in comparison to the modest lifestyle of
the country mouse, but any advantages which the town mouse possesses
are eclipsed by the dangers which he must face in the city. Anybody who
moved in the upper echelons of Roman society would have been acutely
aware of these dangers. Ovid is just one example of how easy it was to
fall from grace.
Friendship
Friendship, as a theme, is evident in both The Journey to Brundisium and
Cease to Mourn. Horace sets out on his journey to Brundisium with his
friend, ‘honest Heliodorus’. The two men then rendezvous with a group
of their friends, all members of the circle of Maecenas. Horace is,
‘pleased to meet with Plotius (and) Varius’ but Virgil is singled out for
special praise, ‘for none my heart more warmly glows. Oh! What
embraces we bestowed and with what joy our breasts o’erflowed! Sure
while my sense is sound and clear, Long as I live, I shall prefer A gay,
good-natured, easy friend To every blessing heaven can send’. It is clear
from these lines that Horace placed a very high value on friendship.
This becomes apparent again in Cease to Mourn. This poem is addressed
to Horace’s friend Valgius, a Roman senator and minor poet. The poem is
an attempt by Horace to console Valgius over the death of his son.
Horace displays heartfelt concern for his friend in the poem and tries to
convince Valgius that his grief will diminish with the passage of time.
Mortality
The dominant theme in Horace’s poetry is the inevitability of death.
Closely linked to this is Horace’s promotion of the pursuit of pleasure
because of the short time available to enjoy oneself. Most of the
prescribed poems deal with this theme but the most important ones to
consider are, Enjoy the Present Hour, Gather Ye Rosebuds, A Quiet Life,
We All Must Die, and Ode to Spring.
In Enjoy the Present Hour, Horace points out that our lives are controlled
by the gods and, ‘Fortune’s power’. It is because of this inability to
decide our own fate that Horace recommends we, ‘Lay hold upon the
present hour, and snatch the pleasures passing by’. Also, in the opinion of
the poet, old age is not something to look forward to. ‘Active sports’,
‘pleasing rest’ and romantic encounters can only be enjoyed when young
because, ‘the best is but in season best’.
This theme is continued in Gather Ye Rosebuds. The poet advises his
friend Leuconoe not to waste his time consulting astrologers about the
future but to, ‘be wise!’ and ‘drink free’ instead. In A Quiet Life the poet
displays his contempt for those who seek wealth and power. In Horace’s
opinion these men are foolish because their lives will be dogged by
anxiety, ‘For baneful care will still prevail, and overtake us under sail,
Twill dodge the great man’s train behind, outrun the roe, outfly the wind’.
It is far better to enjoy the present moment and drive away, ‘tomorrow’s
cares’ with laughter.
We All Must Die is possibly the most pessimistic of all the prescribed
poems by Horace. Death is described as, ‘inexorable’ and, as far as the
poet is concerned, no amount of prayers or sacrifices will delay your
death. To add to the depressing tone of the poem, Horace explains that,
‘your shady groves (and) your pleasing wife’ will be left behind when
you die.
Horace is so preoccupied with human mortality that even in The Town
Mouse and the Country Mouse he cannot resist the temptation of referring
to it. When the town mouse is trying to convince the country mouse to
return to the city with him Horace has the town mouse say, ‘All earthly
creatures have been given mortal souls; Large or small thay have no
means of escaping death. So my dear chap, while there’s still time, enjoy
the good things of life, and never forget your days are numbered’. This
advice, which the town mouse gives, is exactly the same advice that
Horace regularly communicates to his readers.
Nature
The two obvious examples to use here are Rustic Joys and Ode to Spring,
but extracts from Horace’s other poems must also be considered.
Rustic Joys focuses on romantic descriptions of agricultural work and the
poet barely acknowledges that such work can often be demanding. The
farmer plants his vines with an, ‘artful hand’ and the udders of his cattle
swell with milk. The way Horace describes it, it seems as if the farmer
carries out his tasks effortlessly. He gently plucks, ‘the blushing grape
and pear’ and then relaxes under the shade of an ilex tree. The farmer is
so content that Horace claims his simple lifestyle is enough to, ‘remove
the bitter pangs of slighted love’.
Again, in Ode to Spring, Horace draws on romantic visions of nature.
Spring (which represents youth) is a time of joy when, ‘The nymphs and
Graces three put off their fear and unapparelled in the woodland play’.
The leaves on the trees and grass in the meadows is reborn and whatever
is damaged by winter and autumn is rebuilt by the moon, ‘with her
beams’.
It is also important to note how Horace chooses to begin the poems,
Enjoy the Present Hour, Enjoy Your Possessions While They Are Yours,
and Cease to Mourn. Enjoy the Present Hour begins with a poetic
description of a winter landscape. The snow, ‘Oppress(es) the labouring
woods below’ and streams are bound, ‘with icy fetters’. Enjoy Your
Possessions While They Are Yours commences in a similar fashion with a
scenic country retreat as the setting for the poem, ‘Where the high pine
and the white poplar mix …… And bright streams flee between the
crooked banks’. This poem is not an ode to nature but Horace, because of
his love of the natural world, chooses a beautiful rural villa as the location
for the poem.
Cease to Mourn is yet another example of Horace’s preference for images
taken from nature. The poet is trying to explain to his friend Valgius that
his sorrow will be healed with the passage of time. He does this by
comparing his friend’s dark mood to winter and then points out that the
coming of spring melts the winter snow and ice and rejuvenates plant life.
LIVY 59 BC – AD 17
Titus Livius was born in the large and prosperous city of Patavium in Northern Italy.
Livy spent most of his adult life researching and writing his history of Rome and must
have spent a lot of time there accessing historical records. Livy was on friendly terms
with Augustus but we do not know exactly how close their relationship was. Livy
believed that his own generation was experiencing a moral decline and, on this point,
Augustus would have agreed with him.
The primary aim of Livy’s history was to record and explain Rome’s phenomenal rise
to power in the Mediterranean. Livy was obviously impressed by Rome’s
achievements and his work reflects this. Livy’s writing, however, is not completely
biased. Livy often shows admiration for Rome’s enemies, Hannibal being one of the
best examples of this. There are six extracts from Livy’s history on your course. They
are: Livy’s Preface, The Sabine Women, Class Warfare, Horatius on the bridge,
The Romans defeated by Hannibal at Cannae, and The defeat of Hannibal.
Past Questions
2003 – (a) In Livy’s Horatius on the Bridge, what measures did the senate take to
ensure that the poorer citizens remained loyal in the face of the threatened attack by
Lars Porsenna? (20)
(b) How does Livy succeed in making so dramatic this story of Horatius saving
Rome? (20)
(C) From this story, what lessons do you think Livy wanted his Roman readers to
learn?
2002 – In Livy’s account of the battle of Cannae what picture emerges of Hannibal as
a leader, and as a man? (40)
(b) Do you get the impression that Livy admires Hannibal? Support your
opinion with reference to the text. (10)
2001 – ‘History possesses the outstandingly beneficial merit of setting all its varied
lessons luminously on record for our attention. From these, one may select models for
oneself and one’s country’.
In the extracts on your course, what lessons and what models does Livy put before his
readers? (50)
1999 – “It will give me satisfaction to have done my part, to the best of my ability, in
contributing to the record of the greatest people in the world”.
With reference to your text, show that all Livy’s writing is inspired by his patriotism.
(50)
Horatius on the Bridge
In 510/09 BC the Etruscan king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was
overthrown after the Roman nobility conspired against him. After being
driven out of Rome Tarquinius sought assistance from Lars Porsenna, the
ruler of Clusium. Lars Porsenna marched on Rome at the head of his
army in an effort to have Tarquinius reinstated. The Romans, however,
managed to defend the city and their success resulted in the establishment
of the Roman Republic. The extract, Horatius on the Bridge, is Livy’s
account of these historical events.
Class Warfare
The history of the Roman Republic is filled with accounts of discontent
amongst the plebeians in Rome and conflict between them and the
Patricians. Class Warfare is just one of many similar accounts. In his
account, Livy claims that this particular dispute resulted in a
constitutional change in Rome. For the first time Tribunes of the People
were elected to represent the plebeians. The date Livy gives for this
constitutional change is in the early fifth century BC. Throughout the fifth
century the Romans were at war with an Italic tribe called the Aequi.
Cannae – 216 BC
The Roman plan at Cannae was to crush Hannibal’s army through the use
of overwhelming force. In order to do this the Romans had assembled the
largest army in the history of the republic, almost 80,000 infantry and
6000 cavalry. The Carthaginian army facing them consisted of 40,000
infantry and at least 10,000 cavalry. The Romans had already been
defeated by Hannibal on several occasions, most notably at Trebia and
Lake Trasimene.
The Roman army was commanded by the consuls for that year, Aemilius
Paullus and Terentius Varro. As consuls the two men were of equal rank
so they commanded the army on alternate days. Livy praises Paullus’
actions at the expense of Varro but, on this score, Livy’s account cannot
be trusted. Livy does not openly express admiration for Hannibal in this
particular extract but he does not vilify him either. The battle of Cannae
was one of the most famous episodes in Rome’s history and Livy’s
audience would have been very familiar with it. This meant that Livy
could not avoid describing it accurately. Livy, however, does attempt to
portray the actions of some of the Romans in a favourable manner.
The unorthodox tactic used by Hannibal at Cannae is still studied by
military experts today. The following statistic should put the Roman
defeat into perspective – The Romans lost more men in a single day at
Cannae than the Americans in the entire Vietnam War!
A (Very) Brief History of the Roman Republic
The traditional date for the founding of Rome (by Romulus) is 753 BC
but archaeological evidence shows that small settlements existed on some
of the seven hills hundreds of years earlier than that. In the early years of
its existence Rome was ruled by kings. The last king, Tarquinius
Superbus, being overthrown around 510/09 BC. It was shortly after this
that the Roman Republic was first established.
Even at this early date Rome was slowly growing in power but it was
certainly not inevitable that Rome would expand to become the only
superpower in the ancient world. The Roman transition from monarchy to
a republic was not entirely smooth and this is reflected in Livy’s extract,
Class Warfare.
Throughout the 5th and 4th centuries BC Rome fought a series of wars
with the other City-States in Italy until finally, c. 272 BC, Rome
controlled almost all of Italy. Rome, however, did not yet possess any
overseas colonies. The first of these (eg: Sicily, Sardinia, Spain) were
accumulated by the Romans during the Punic Wars (see separate
handout). Between 200 BC and 27 BC the Roman Republic expanded at
an alarming rate absorbing Greece, Macedonia, France, Egypt, Britain
and Asia Minor – Among others!