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Anthony Giddens
LON DON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
Mitchell Duneier
CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK-GRADUATE CENTER
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
Richard P. Appelbaum
UNIVERSIT Y OF CALIFORNIA ,
SANTA BARBARA
Deborah Carr
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY
affirmative action. In a current entering class at an Ivy League school, for example, out of
1,000 students there may be 100 blacks and 75 Latinos. The 1,000 students were selected
from about 20,000 applicants. A significant portion of the 19,000 who were rejected may
think that they didn't get in because a black or a Latino got in instead of them. But we know
from the data that this is impossible: There is no way that 175 people could be keeping 19,000
people out of any school. For this reason, answer choice bis also incorrect.
As you can see, it's not enough to have a sociological imagination in the way that Mills
intended it. We want you to learn how to sort through the evidence in a way that begins with
imagination but insists on the kind of methods that can give us firmer and better answers
to important sociological questions. How to do this in a rigorous way will be the subject of
Chapter2.
THE ANSWER IS D .
....
0
BASIC CONCEPTS
The scope of sociological study is extremely wide, but in general, sociologists ask themselves certain questions that help to focus the sociological imagination and provide them
with the concepts that motivate research. These questions that orient the discipline
include: How are the things that we take to be natural actually socially constructed? How
is social order possible? Does the individual matter? How are the times in which we are
living different from the times that came before?
Social Construction
There is a basic flaw in human reasoning that goes something like this: The things that we
see before us are inevitable. They are natural and cannot be changed. What sociology teaches
us is that in many ways we are freer than we think-that the things we think are natural are
actually created by human beings. We might consider the question we started this chapter
with as an example: The college admissions system is a social construction located in a
specific place and time. Criteria for admission to American colleges have shifted according to
historical and demographic trends and to changes in university leadership (Gladwell, 2005).
Another example comes from everyday experiences with sex and gender. A baby is born
with a penis or a vagina. By way of that characteristic, the baby begins a process of being
assigned to the category of"boy" or "girl." This is extremely important because it is almost
always the first thing you want to know before you can interact with the baby. If you can't
figure it out, you may ask the parents.
Is this true ofany other characteristic? You usually don't need to know the race of a baby
before you start interacting. You don't need to know the economic class of a baby. Most
babies today, regardless of their economic standing, are dressed in mass-produced clothes
from stores such as Baby Gap or Old Navy. Most
parents in general do not try to signal the class
of their baby with his or her garments. The same
social construction • An idea or practice that
a group of people agree exists. It is maintained
principle applies to race and ethnicity. There are
over time by people taking its existence for ,
certain parents who will dress their baby in order
granted.
to affiliate with a certain race or ethnic group,
6
CHAPTER 1
Wha t Is Sociology?
but-except on holidays-such parents are less common. Not as many people feel they need
to know the race of a baby in order to interact with it.
Sex is different. If you are a parent, you do not want someone coming up to your baby
boy and asking, "Is it a boy or a girl?" So what do you do to avoid this scenario? You dress
your baby in blue if he is a boy, or in pink if she is a girl. Some parents do not do this at the
beginning- until they start getting asked that question. Then they start dressing their baby
in a certain way so that people will stop asking. Of course, even if you do dress your baby in
the traditional blue or pink, there may still be people who come up and ask, "Is it a boy or a
girl?" But it is not something that will happen often, because most people are pretty good at
reading social cues-such as a blue or pink cap.
Now, the fact that many people need to know the sex of a baby suggests that we interact
differently depending on whether we think someone is a boy or a girl. Ifa baby is a boy, a person
might walk up and say something in a traditional masculine style, such as "Hey, Bud! How
you doin'?" Ifit's a girl, the person might say something that is more appropriate for a little girl
or more in keeping with the norms of traditional femininity. Eventually, we get to the point
where these interactions start to mold the kind of person the baby becomes. Children come to
see themselves as being.e ither a boy or a girl. They start to move their bodies like a little boy or
a little girl. They know that this is how they
are seen by others and they know that when
-------------------------------------they go out onto the street, they occupy the
People interact differently with babies based on the babies'
role of boy or girl. This happens through a
gender. How do sociologists analyze these interactions?
process of interaction.
Even though it is not simply a natural
occurrence that a person starts to behave
as a boy or a girl, many of us are raised to
believe that the differences between men
and women are purely biological. Sociologists disagree. Does this mean that
sociologists want to eliminate the role
of biology? No. The goal of sociology is
not to try to teach you that the biological
realm is a residual category with a minor
role in explaining human behavior. One
purpose of sociology is to disentangle
what is biological from what is socially
constructed. It is in part to try to figure
out how social phenomena relate to biological phenomena. Most sociologists
admit that there is a place for the biological. However, there are many fascinating
studies that show that the things that
the average human being thinks are
biological, and thus natural, are actually
socially constructed.
The more you start to think about disentangling what is natural from what is
socially constructed, the more rigorously
you will begin to think as a sociologist.
Basic Concept s
7
Social Order
A professor looks out onto a lecture hall and sees a roomful of silent students taking notes
and exhibiting self-control and discipline. There must be somebody in the room who wishes
that she were doing yoga instead, or who would like to turn around to a friend in the back
and say something to him. But the fact of the matter is t hat almost everyone appears to be
doing the same thing: sitting quietly, listening, taking notes (or at least pretending to). How
can we explain this orderly behavior? How can we explain the existence of social order in a
lecture hall or in a society? We certainly need social order to get through t he day, but how
can we understand it?
Sociologists have offered up many different explanations to try to answer such questions.
One explanation is that it is rational for individuals to act this way. Students know it is in
their self-interest to sit quietly and pay, or pretend to pay, attention. Perhaps a student hopes
to apply to graduate school and wants to get a letter ofrecommendation from the professor.
This goal motivates ~~r to respond to the classroom environment: The professor's willingness to write a letter is an incentive for good behavior. The recommendation acts as an
incentive, stimulating the response of the student who wants it. The student tries to make
a good impression, all the while keeping in mind that if she turns around and talks to her
friend week after week instead oflistening, the professor might write an unflattering letter
or refuse to write one at all. This explanation based on self-interest and incentives is what
economists would use to explain most things. While some sociologists adopt such theories,
most find such explanations to be based on an all-too-narrow conception of human nature.
They appeal to a different set oftheories. ·
Thus, another explanation for social order is the existence ofnorms. It is a norm of social
life that when students come into a classroom they sit and take notes and pay attention.
They learn and internalize norms as young people through a process called socialization.
Once they have internalized a norm, they tend to follow through with the expectations of
the norm in most of their interactions. Norms are important to sociologists because they
explain some of the ways in which we are inside society and, simultaneously, society is
inside us.
Yet another explanation for social order focuses on beliefs and values. Perhaps students
place a value on the classroom, on the university, or on higher education. Ifthis is the case, then
the social order upheld in classrooms is more than a norm. The lecture hall is a symbol of a
greater whole, a sacred place that is partofalarger moral universe. Students sit quietly because
they believe professors in this ceremonial order deserve respect, maybe even deference.
It is important to keep in mind that we do not need to choose between these theories.
Multiple factors can operate together. All these explanations address the question of social
order from a sociological perspective. As such, t he existence of social order is not taken
for granted. For the average person, the question
of social order arises in response to disruptions
or breaks in that order. The average person who
socialization • The social processes through
sees an event such as the attacks on the World
which children develop an awareness of social
norms and values and achieve a distinct se nse
Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11,
of self. Although socialization processes are
2001, or the Columbine school shooting may
particularly significant in infancy and childhood,
ask, "How could this event have happened?" The
they continue to some degree throughout life.
No individuals are immune from the reactions of
sociologist reverses that question in order to ask,
others around them, which influence and modify
"How is it that disruptions in the social order do
their behavior at all phases of the life course.
not happen more frequently?"
8
CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
---
-- - - - - - - - - -- ---------..
Agency and Structure
A long-standing debate in the social sciences revolves around questions of free will and
determinism. For example, a deterministic framework would predict that where an individual ends up in life is significantly if not entirely influenced by the position into which he
is born. The sociological imagination can be quite deterministic in that it pushes us to see
that, in many ways, the lives of individuals are quite determined by their social roles, gender, race, and class. Yet we would not want you to take away the lesson that individuals are
trapped, or controlled like puppets.
Let us return to our example of college admissions. It is true that Ivy League graduates
have a significantly higher average income than graduates of state-level schools. This would
suggest that the place at which one attends college is a crucial determinant of one's success
in later life. However, conventional studies looked only at students who had the same SAT
scores and grades; they did not factor in other, personal characteristics that may have had
an effect on later success in life.
In 2002, Alan Krueger and Stacy Dale published a study comparing the average yearly
incomes of students who had been admitted to and attended an Ivy League college with
those who had been admitted to an Ivy League school, but who chose to attend a statelevel college instead. Krueger and Dale's study found that the individual does matter,
despite an apparent disparity in opportunities for students who attend Ivy League versus
non-Ivy League universities. Contrary to the popular conception that attending elite
institutions will guarantee future success, it appears that highly motivated students,
rather than institutional structures, prove more a determinant of this success (2002;
Gladwell, 2005).
Sociologists tend to think in probabilities. They look at the probabilities that people will
end up in certain living situations on the basis of characteristics, de-emphasizing to some
extent the power of the individual. However, the sociological imagination does leave room
for the person to have an impact, even as we acknowledge that she is constrained.
Think about a girl from a working-class famiJy whose parents have active sociological
imaginations and a very deterministic understanding of their child's life chances. The
parents did not go to college. Instead, they entered the workforce after high school, and
they expect that their daughter will do the same. When the teenager tells her parents that
she would like to go to college and be a lawyer, the parents might think of the probability
of an individual from their class position achieving such a goal- how unlikely it is. They
might tell their child to consider the odds against her and encourage her to find a different
goal so that she will not be disappointed. What if she took this advice with a grain of salt
and applied to college anyway? She would be no different from many of your classmates,
and possibly even you. Many of you can think of people who started out just like this, with
similar constraints, but who ended up in college due to their refusal to accept the odds as
their fate.
Social Change
One ofthe questions sociologists ask is how people live in light ofthe social transformations
of their time.
In 1831, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French aristocrat and one ofthe first great social theorists,
visited the United States from France. He wanted to understand how the conditions ofdemocracy and equality were possible. Ever since the publication ofhis resulting study, Democracy in
Basic Concepts
9
America (1969; orig. 1835), the United
States has been viewed through the
lens ofsociology as a nation ofjoiners in
which, more so than in Europe, people
are involved in many groups and activities. Yet sociologists constantly revisit
questions about whether the way we
live today is different from how we lived
in earlier times, and one ofthe enduring
questions is whether Americans are
less involved than before in publicspirited activities.
Another great theorist, Max Weber
(1947; orig. 1922), looked at the way
the world had been changing due to
the influence of massive large-scale
Tocqueville described nineteenth-century Americans as a nation of
organizations, and how the emerjoiners. Is that sti ll true?
gence of an organizational society
and large bureaucratic organizations
had changed and transformed social life.
-~··-------Karl Marx, in Capital (1977; orig. 1867),
examined how industrialization had
CONCEPT C HECKS
changed the structure of an entire society,
transforming the relationships of indi1. What is the sociological imagination, accordviduals to their work and to each other from
ing to C. Wright Mil ls?
feudalism to capitalism. Emile Durkheim,
2. How does sociology help us to disentang le
biologica l from sociological phenomena?
in The Division of Labor in Society (1964;
3. How does the concept of social structure
orig. 1893), discussed how the historical
help soc iologists better understand social
changes wrought by industrialization and
phenomena?
urbanization had led to the increasing
specificity of the roles individuals fu lfilled,
and how this specialization functioned to
benefit society as a whole. These sound like abstract topics, but t hey were central to understanding how the world was changing at particular times.
'--·- --------·-------
0
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGICAL
THINKING
When students start studying sociology, many are puzzled by the diversity of approaches
they encounter. Indeed, sociologists often disagree about how to study human behavior and
how best to interpret research results. Why s hould this be so? Why can't sociologists agree
more consistently, as natural scientists seem to do? The answer is bound up with the very
nature of the field. Sociology is about our lives and our beh avior, and studying ourselves is
the most complex endeavor we can undertake. To understand this complexity, sociologists
are guided by the four questions we h ave discussed and that are characteristic of sociological thinking: How are the things we take to be nat ural actually socially constructed? How is
10 CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
social order possible? Does the individual matter? How are the times in which we live different from those that came before?
Theories and Theoretical Approaches
AUGUSTE COMTE
The French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) invented the word sociology to
describe the subject he wished to establish. Comte believed that the scientific method could
be applied to the study of human behavior and society, and that this new field could produce
knowledge of society based on scientific evidence. Comte believed that sociology should
model itself after physics, and he initially called the subject social physics, a term that many
of his contemporaries used. In addition to the scientific study of social life, Comte felt that
sociology should contribute to the welfare of humanity by using science to predict and control human behavior. His ideas about social planning were predicated on an understanding
that society and the social order are not natural or preordained by a divine power but, rather,
are constructed by individuals. Later in his career, Comte drew up ambitious plans for the
reconstruction of French society in particular, and for human societies in general, based on
scientific knowledge. The question of whether sociologists should seek to serve humanity
with their work is one that sociologists still ask.
EMILE DURKHEIM
Although Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917) drew on aspects of Comte's
work, he thought that many of his predecessor's ideas were too
speculative and vague and that Comte had not successfully carried
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917).
out his program-to establish sociology on a scientific basis. To
have a scientific basis, according to Durkheim, sociologists must
develop methodological principles to guide their research. Sociology must study social facts-aspects of social life that shape our
actions as individuals, such as the state of the ecpnomy or the influence ofreligion. Durkheim's famous first principle of sociology was
"Study social facts as things!" By this he meant that social life can
be analyzed as rigorously as objects or events in nature.
Like a biologist studying the human body, Durkheim saw society as a set of independent parts, each of which could be studied
separately. Each of a body's specialized parts (such as the bra in,
heart, lungs, and liver) contributes to sustaining the life of the
organism. These specialized parts work in harmony with one
another; if they do not, the life of the organism is under threat. So
it is, according to Durkheim, with society. For a society to have a
continuing existence over time, its specialized i nstitutions (such as the political system,
toclalfacu • According t o Emile Du rkheim,
the religion, the family, and the educational
the aspects of social life that shape our actions
system) must function as an integrated whole.
as individuals. Durkheim believed that social
Durkheim referred to this social cohesion as
facts could be studied scientifically.
organic solidarity. He argued t h at the con~ IOlidarity • According t o Emile
Durkheim, the socia l cohesion that results from
tinuation of a society depends on cooperation,
the various parts of a society functio ning as an
which presumes a general consensus among its
integrated whole.
members over basic values and customs.
Th e Development of Sociological Thi nki ng
11
Another theme pursued by Durkheim, and by many others since, is that societies exert
social constraint over their members' actions. Durkheim argued that society is far more
than the sum of individual acts; when we analyze social structures, we study characteristics that have a "firmness" or "solidity" comparable to those of structures in the physical
world. Think of a person standing in a room with several doors. The structure of the room
constrains the range of the person's possible activities. The position of the walls and doors,
for example, defines routes of exit and entry. Social structure, according to Durkheim, constrains our activities in a parallel way, limiting what we can do as individuals. It is "external" to us, just as the walls of the room are.
Durkheim's analysis of social change was based on the development of the division
oflabor; he saw it as gradually replacing religion as the basis of social cohesion and
providing organic solidarity to modern societ ies. He argued that as t he division of labor
expands, people become more dependent on
socialcowrtraint • The conditioning influence
on our behavior of the groups and sotieties
one a nother because each person needs goods
of which we are members. Social constraint
and services that those in other occupations
was regarded by Emile Durkheim as one of the
supply. Another of Durkheim's famous studies
distinctive properties of social facts.
(1966; orig. 1897) analyzed suicide. Although
diviaionoflabor • The specialization of work
tasks by means of which different occupations
suicide seems to be a personal act, the out come
are combined within a production system. All
of extreme personal unhappiness, Durkheim
societies have at least some rudimentary form
showed that social factors influence suicidal
of division of labor, especially between the
tasks allocated to men and those performed by
behavior- such as anomie, a feeling of aimwomen. With the development of industrialism,
lessness or despair provoked by modern social
the division of labor became vastly more
life. Suicide rates show regular patterns from
complex than in any prior type of production
system. In the modern world, the division of
year to year, he argued, and these patterns
labor is international in scope.
must be explained sociologically. According
anomie • The concept f irst brought into wide
to Durkheim, processes of change in the modusage in sociology by Durkheim referring to a
ern world are so rapid and intense that they
situation in which social norms lose their hold
give rise to major social difficulties, which he
over individual behavior.
linked to anomie. Traditional moral controls
and standards, formerly supplied by religion,
largely break down under modern social development, and this
leaves many individuals feeling that their lives lack meaning.
Durkheim later focused on the role ofreligion in social life. In his
Karl Marx (1818-1883).
study of religious beliefs, practices, and rituals, The Elementary
Forms of Religious Life (1965; orig. 1912), he explored the importance ofreligion in maintaining moral order in society.
KARL MARX
The ideas ofKarl Marx (1818-1883), German economic, political, and
social theorist, contrast sharply with those of Comte and Durkheim;
however, Marx also sought to explain social changes arising from t he
Industrial Revolution. When he was a young man, his political activities brought him into conflict with the German authorities; after a
brief stay in France, he settled in exile in Britain. Much of his writing concentrates on economic issues, but because he was always concerned with connecting economic problems to social institutions, his
work is rich in sociological insights.
12
CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
•
Marx's viewpoint was founded on what he called the materialist conception of
history. According to this view, it is not the ideas or values human beings hold that
are the main sources of social change, as Durkheim claimed. Rather, social change is
prompted primarily by economic influences. The conflicts between classes-rich versus
poor-provide the motivation for historical development. In Marx's words, "All human
history thus far is the history of class struggles."
Though he wrote about various phases of history, Marx concentrated on change in
modern times. For him, the most important changes related to the development of capitalism. Those who own capital-factories, machines, and large sums of money-form
a ruling class. The mass of the population makes up a class of wage workers, a working
class, who do not own the means of their livelihood but must find en1Ployment provided
by the owners of capital. Capitalism is thus a class system in which conflict is inevitable
because it is in the interests of the ruling class to exploit the working class and in the
interests of the workers to seek to overcome that exploitation.
According to Marx, in the future, capitalism will be supplanted by a society with no divisions between rich and poor. He didn't mean that all inequalities would disappear. Rather,
societies will no longer be split into a small class that monopolizes economic and political
power and the large mass ofpeople who benefit little from the wealth their work creates. The
economic system that will develop in response to
capitalist conflict will have communal ownermaterialistconceptionofhistory • The
ship and will lead to a more equal society than we
view developed by Marx according to which
material, or economic, factors have a prime role
know at present.
in determining historical change.
Marx's work had a far-reaching effect on
capitalism
• An economic system based on
the twentieth-century world. Until recently,
the private ownership of wealth, which is invested
before the fall of Soviet communism, more
and reinvested in order to produce profit.
than a third of the earth's population lived in
Table 1.1
Interpreting Modern Development
DURKHEIM
MARX
WEBER
1.
The main dynamic o f modern development is the division of labor
as a basis for social cohesion and organic solidarity.
2.
Durkheim believed that sociology must study social facts as things,
just as science would analyze the natural world. His study of suicide
led him to stress the important influence of social factors, qualities
of a society external to the individual, on a person's actions.
Durkheim argued that society exerts social constraint over our
actions.
1.
The main dynamic of modern development is the expansion of
capitalism. Rather than being cohesive, society is divided by class
differences.
2.
Marx believed that we must study the divisions within a society
that are derived from the economic inequalities of capitalism.
1.
The main dynamic of modern development is the ratlonalizatlon of
social and economic life.
2.
Weber focused on why Western societies developed so differently
from other societies. He also emphasized the importance of
c ultural ideas and values on social change.
The Developm ent of Soc iological Thinking
13
societies whose governments derived inspiration from Marx's
ideas. In addition, many sociologists have been influenced by
Marx's ideas about class divi sions.
MAX WEBER
Like Marx, the German-born Max Weber (pronounced "Vaber,"
1864- 1920) cannot be labeled simply a sociologist; his interests
spanned many areas. His writings covered t he fields of economics, law, philosophy, and comparative history as well as sociology,
and much of his work also treated the development of modern capitalism. He was influenced by Marx but was also critical of some
of Marx's major views. He rejected the materialist conception of
history and saw class conflict as less significant than did Marx. In
Weber's
view, economic factors are important, but ideas and values
Max Weber (1864-1920).
. have just as much effect on social change.
Some of Weber's most influential writings analyzed the distinctiveness ofWestern society compared with other major civilizations.
He studied the religions of China, India, and the Near East, thereby making major contributions to the sociology of religion. Comparing the leading religious systems in China and
India with those ofthe West, Weber concluded that certain aspects of Christian beliefs had
strongly influenced the rise of capitalism. He argued that the capitalist outlook ofWestern
societies had not emerged, as Marx suppo_sed, only from economic changes. In Weber's view,
cultural ideas and values shape society and affect individual actions.
One of the most persistent concerns of Weber's work was the study of bureaucracy.
A bureaucracy is a large organization that is divided into jobs based on specific functions
and staffed by officials ranked according to a hierarchy. Industrial firms, government organizations, hospitals, and schools are examples of bureaucracies. Weber saw the advance of
bureaucracy as an inevitable feature of our era. Bureaucracy enables large organizations to
run efficiently, but at the same time it poses problems for effective democrat ic participation
in modern societies. Bureaucracy involves the rule of experts, who make decisions without
consulting those whose lives are affected by t hem.
Some of Weber's writings also address the character of sociology itself. He was more
cautious than either Durkheim or Marx in proclaiming sociology t o be a science. According
to Weber, it is misleading to imagine that we can study people by using the same procedures
by which we use physics or biology to investigate the physical world. Humans are thinking, reasoning beings; we attach meaning and significance to most of what we do, and any
discipline that deals with human behavior must acknowledge this.
Neglected Founders
Although Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber are foundational figures in-.socio1ogy, other
thinkers from the same period made important contributions. Very few women or members of racial minorities had the opportunity
to become professional sociologists during the
"classical" period of the late nineteenth and early
bureaucracy • A type of organization
marked by a clear hierarchy of authority and
twentieth centuries. Even the foundational figthe existence of written rules of procedure and
ures in sociology frequently ignored women and
staffed by full-time, salaried officials.
racial minorities, at the same time that they were
14
CHAPTE R 1
What Is Sociology?
creating the first theories systematically to address inequality, stratification, subjective meaning, and exploitation. As a result, the few
women and members of racial minorities that conducted sociological
research of lasting importance often remain neglected by the field .
These individuals and the theories they developed deserve the attention ofsociologists today.
HARRIET MARTINEAU
I
}~
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), born and educated in England, has
been called t he "first woman sociologist." As with Marx and Weber,
her interests extended beyond sociology. She was the author of more
than 50 books as well as numerous essays, and was an active proponent of women's rights and the abolition of slavery. Martineau
is now credited with introducing sociology to England through
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876).
her tra nslation of Comte's founding treatise of the field, Positive
Philosophy (Rossi, 1973). Additionally, she conducted a systematic
study of American society during her extensive travels throughout
the United States in the 1830s, which is the subject of her book Society in America (1962;
orig. 1837). Martineau is significant to sociologists today for several reasons, but in particular for her methodological insight. Fl!:.st. she a rgu.ecltbat when one studies ~ty.
one must focus on all its aspects, including keUQlliical. religious, and social institutions.
Second, she insisted that an ~lysis ~ciety must include.alljts members, a point
that drew attention to the conspicuous al>sence of women's lives from the sociology oftha~
time. Third, she was the first to turn a sociological eye on previously ignored issues and
'institutions, including ma rriage, children, domestic and religious life, and race relations.
Finally, like Comte, she argued that sociologists should do more than just observe; they
should also act in ways to benefit society.
W.E.B. DU BOIS
W.E.B. Du Bois (1868- 1963) was the first African American to earn
a doctorate from Harvard Universit y. Among h is many contributions to sociology, perhaps most important is the concept of"double
_consciousness," a way oftalking about identity through the lens of
the experiences of African Americans. Du Bois made a persuasive
clai m that one's sense of self and one's identity are greatly influenced by historical experiences and social circumstances-in the
case of African Americans, the effect of slavery and, after emancipation, segregation and prejudice. Throughout hi,,s career, Du Bois
foc used on race relations in the United States; as he said in an oftrepeated quote, "the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line" (D u Bois, 1903). His influence on sociology
today is evidenced by continued interest in the questions he raised,
partic ularly his concern that sociology must explain "the contact
of dive rse races of men" (Du Bois, 1903). Du Bois was also the first
social researche r to trace the problems faced by African Americans to their social and economic underpinnings, a connection that
most sociologists now widely accept. Finally, he c'onnected social
W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963).
The Development of Sociological Thinking
15
analysis to social reform. He was one of the founding members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and a longtime advocate for the
collective struggle of African Americans.
Understanding the Modern World:
The Sociological Debate
From Marx's time to the present, many sociological debates have centered on Marx's ideas
about the influence of economics on the development of modern societies. According to
Marx, the impulse behind social change in the modern era resides in the pressure toward
constant economic transformation produced by the spread of capitalist production. Capitalism is a vastly more dynamic economic system than any other that preceded it. Capitalists compete to sell their goods to consumers; to survive in a competitive market, firms
have to produce their wares as cheaply and efficiently as possible. This leads to constant
technological innovation, because increasing the effectiveness of the technology used in
a particular production process is one way in which companies can secure an edge over
their rivals.
There are also strong incentives to seek new markets in which to sell goods, acquire
cheap raw materials, and make use of cheap labor power. Capitalism, therefore, according
to Marx, is a restlessly expanding system pushing outward across the world. This is how
Marx explains the global spread ofWestern industry.
Subsequent Marxist authors have refiped Marx's portrayal. However, numerous critics
have set out to rebut Marx's view, offering alternative analyses of the influences shaping
the modern world. Virtually everyone accepts that capitalism has played a major part. but
other sociologists have argued that Marx exaggerated the effect of purely economic factors
in producing change and that capitalism is less central to modern social development than
he claimed. Most of these writers have also been skeptical of Marx's belief that a socialist
system would eventually replace capitalism.
One of Marx's earliest and most acute critics was Max Weber. whose alternative position remains important today. ~a Weber noneconomic factor~ve played the
key role in modern social development. Weber's celebrated work The ProtestantEtfiic and
the Spirit ofCapitalism (1977; orig.1904) proposes that religious values- especially those
associated with Puritanism-were of fundamental importance in creating a capitalistic
outlook. This outlook did not emerge, as Marx supposed, only from economic changes.
Weber's understanding ofthe nature of modern societies, and the reasons forthe spread
of Western ways of life across t he world, also contrasts substantially with that of Marx.
According to Weber, capitalism-a distinct way of organizing economic enterprise- is one
among other major factors shaping social development in the modern period. ~derJyl_ng
capitalist mechanisms, and in some ways more fundamental than those mechanisms, is
~the effect of science and bu re~. Science has shaped modern technology and will presumably do so in any future society, whether socialist or capitalist. Bureaucracy is the only
way of organizing large numbers of people effectively, and therefore inevitably expands with economic and political growth. The developments of
rationalization • A concept used by Max
Weber to refer to the process by which modes
science, modern technology, and bureaucracy
of precise calculation and organization,
are examples of a general social process that
involving abstract rules and procedures,
Weber refers to collectively as rationalizaincreasingly come to dominate the social world.
tion. Rationalization means the organization of
16 CHAPTER 1
What Is Socio logy?
analyzing the social world. According to him, language allows us to become self-conscious
beings- aware of our own individuality. The key element in this process is the symbol For
example, the word tree is a symbol by which we represent the object tree. Once we have mastered such a concept, Mead a rgued, we ca n think of a tree even if none is visible. Symbolic
thought frees us from being limited in our experience to what we actually see, hear, or feel.
Unlike animals, according to Mead, human beings live in a richly symbolic universe.
This applies even to our sense of self. Each of us is a self-conscious being because we learn
to look at ourselves as if from the outsi<cle- as others see us. When a child begins to use "I"
to refer to that object whom others call "you" (herself), she is exhibiting the beginnings of
s~~onsciousness.
~ 11 interactions among individuals, symbolic interactionists say, involve an exchange
of symbols. When we interact with others, we constantly look for clues to what type of
behavior is appropriate in the context and how to interpret what others are up to. Symbolic
interaction ism directs our attention to the detail of interpersonal interaction and how that
det ail is used to mak.e' sense of what others say and do. For instance, suppose two people
are on a first date. Each spends a good part of the evening sizing the other up and assessing
h ow the relationship is likely to develop, if at all. Neither wishes to be seen doing this t oo
openly, although each recognizes that it is going on. Both individuals are careful about their
own behavior, being eager to present themselves in a favorable light; but, knowing this, both
are looking for aspects of the other's behavior t hat would reveal his or her true opinions. A
complex and subtle process of symbolic interpretation shapes their interaction.
Functionalism
Symbolic interactionism has been criticized for concentrating too much on t hings that a re
small in scope. Symbolic interactionists have found difficulty in dealing with larger-scale
structures and processes- t he very things that a rival tradition ofthought, functionalism,
emphasizes. F unctionalist thinking in sociology was originally pioneered by Comte, who
saw it as closely bound up with his overall view ofthe field.
To stud~n..of asocial acti'lity_is to anal~ its contribution to.th!u:ontinuation
of the society as aw~. The best way to understand this idea is by analogy to the human
body, a comparison that Comte, Durkheim, and other functionalist authors made.~
an organ such as the heai:t,.we need tO-Show how it relateS-to-Gther parts of the body. When
~rn how the heart pumps blood, we understand its yital role in the continuation of the
life of the organism. Similarly, analyzing the function of some aspect of society, such as
religion, means °;bowing its part in the continued existence and health of a society. Functionalism emphasizes the importance of moral con sens~aintaining order and st abil~ in society Moral consensu s exists when most
people share the same values. Functionalists
regard order and balance as the normal state of
symbol • One item used to stand for or
society-this
social equilibrium is grounded in a
represent another-as in the case of a flag,
moral consensus among the members of society.
w hich symbolizes a nation.
According to Durkheim, for instance, religion
functiona1t.m • A theoretical perspective
based on the notion that social events can best
reaffirms people's adherence to core social valbe explained in terms of the functions they
ues, thereby helping to maintain social cohesion.
perform-that is, the contributions they make to
Functionalism became prominent in sociolthe cont inuity of a society.
ogy through the writings of Talcott Parsons and
18 CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
Robert K. Merton, each of whom saw functionalist analysis as providing the key to the development of sociological theory and research.
Merton's version offunctionalism has been particularly influential.
Merton distinguished between manifest and latent functions.
Manifest functions are those known to, and intended by, the participants in a social activity. Latent functions are consequences
of that activity of which participants are unaware. Merton used
the example of a rain dance performed by the Hopi tribe of Arizona
and New Mexico. The Hopi believe that the ceremony ~ng
the rain t hey need for their crops (manife.st function). This is why
organize and participate in it. But using Durkhei m's theory
of religion, Merton argued tha
motes the
cohesion of Hopi society (latent function). A major part of sociological explanation, accordmg fOMertOn, consists in uncovering
the latent functions of social activities and institutions.
Merton also distinguished between functions and dysfunctions. To look for the dysfunctional aspect s of social behavior
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003).
means to focus on features of social life that challenge the existing
order. For example, it is mistaken to suppose t hat religion is always
functional- that it contributes only to social cohesion. When two groups support different religions or different versions of t he same religion, the result can be major social
conflicts, causing widespread social disruption. Thus wars have often been fought
between religious communities-as in the struggles between Protestants and Catholics
in European history.
For a long while, functionalist thought was the leading theoretical tradition in sociology, particularly in the United States. In recent years, its popularity has declined. Although
this was not true of Merton, many functionalist thinkers-Talcott Parsons is an exampleunduly stressed factors leading to social cohesion at the expense of those producing division
and conflict. In addition, many critics claim that functional analysis attributes to societies
certain qualities those societies do not have. Functionalists often wrote as though societies
had "needs" and "purposes," even though these concepts make sense only when applied to
individual human beings.
theY
Marxism and Class Conflict
Functionalism and symbolic interactionism are not the only modern theoretical traditions of importance in sociology. A further influential approach is'Marx ism. Marxists,
of course, all trace their views back to the writings of Karl Marx, but today there are schools of
Marxist thought that take very different theomanifestfunctiom • The functions of a type
of social activity that are known to and intended
retical positions.
by the individuals involved in the activity.
In all its variations, Marxism differs from
latent functiolUI • Functional consequences
non-Marxist traditions of sociology in that its
that are not intended or recognized by the
author s see it as a combination of sociological
members of a social system in which they occur.
analysis and political reform. Marxism is supMarxism • A body of thought deriving its
main elements from the ideas of Karl Marx.
posed to generate a program of radical political
change. Moreover, Marxists lay more emphasis
Modern Theoretical A p proaches
19
on conflict, class divisions, power, and ideology than many non-Marxist sociologists do,
especially those influenced by functionalism. The concept of power is of great importance to Marxist sociologists and to sociology in general. Power implies the capability
of individuals or groups to make their own interests count, even when others resist.
Power sometimes involves the direct use of force but is almost always accompanied by
t~ devclQID1leut Gfid~~(ideolo@es), which are used to iustify the act10ns ofthe powerful. ~ower, id~og'y and conflict are always closely connected. Many conflicts are about
power because of the rewards it can bring. Those who hold most power may depend on
the influence of ideology to retain their dominance but are usually also able to use force
if necessary.
Feminism and Feminist Theory
Feminist theory is one of the most prominent areas of contemporary sociology. This is a
notable development because gender issues are scarcely central in the work ofthe major figures who established the discipline. The•s uccess offeminism's entry into sociology required
a fundamental shift in the discipline's approach.
Many feminist theorists' experiences in the women's movement of the 1960s and '70s
influenced their work as sociologists. Like Marxism, feminism links sociological theory
and political reform. Many feminist sociologists have been advocates for political and
social action to remedy the inequalities between women and men in both the public and t he
private spheres.
Feminist sociologists argue that women's experiences are central to the study of
society. Sociology, like most academic disciplines, has presumed a male point of view.
Concerned with women's subordination in society, feminist sociologists highlight gender relations and gender inequality as important determinants of social life in terms of
both social interaction and social institutions
such as the family, the workplace, and the educational system. Feminist theory emphasizes
poWel' • The ability of individuals or the
that gendered patterns and gendered inequalimembers of a group to achieve aims or further
the if)terests they hold. Power is a pervasive
ties are socially constructed. (We will cover
element in all human relationships. Many
this point in more detail in Chapter 10.)
conflicts in society are struggles over power,
Today, feminist sociology focuses on the
because how much power an ihdividual or group
is able to achieve governs how far they are able
intersection of gender, race, and class. A feminist
to put their wishes into practice.
approach to the study ofinequality has influenced
~ • Shared ideas or beliefs that serve
new fields of study, such as men's studies, sexualto justify the interests of dominant groups.
ity
studies, and gay and lesbian studies.
Ideologies are found in all societies in Which
there are systematic and ingrained inequalities
between groups. The concept ofideology
connects closely with that of power, since
ideological systems serve to legitimize the
power that groups hold.
fehalnisttbeory • A sociological perspective
that emphasizes the centrality of gender in
analyzing the social world and particularly
the uniqueness of the experience of women.
There are many strands of feminist theory,
but they all share the desire to .explain gender
inequalities in society and to work to overcome
them.
20 CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
Rational Choice Theory
The sociologist~that--ttll
behavior could be divided into four categories:
(1) ~brolior oriented toward higher.italues, such
~ics; (2) beht!!a~vaiQL~~c.e.cJJOLW<1i..ta....uat01
such as walking to school on a familiar pat h;
(3) behavior oriented toward ~ (EllJlotions),
~has falling in love: and (4)~havior oriented
_g>w.ard self-interestp such as making money.
Behavior in the last category is often called
--
"instrumental." or "rational." action. In recent years, many sociologists have adopted an
approach that focuses on it. This has led numerous scholars to ask under what conditions human behavior can be said to constitute rational responses to opportunities and
constraints.
The rational choice approach posits that if you could have only a single variable to
explain society ~!re;;! would be the best one. A person who believes in this approach
ain things that seem irrational. One popular rational choice theory
might even use :
sees decisions to marry as maximizing self-interest in a marriage market; this might explain
why marriage has declined the most in poor African American communities with low rates
of employment. The explanation-that it is not in the self-interest of women to marry men
who cannot support them (Wilson, 1987)-goes against competing explanations suggesting
that poor African Americans don't marry because they don't share mainstream values. The
rational choice argument sees the decline as having little to do with values and much to do
with self-interest under existing conditions. According to this theory, if employment rates
for black men were to change, so would the number of"eligible" men and the desire ofwomen
to marry them.
Rational choice theorists find few irrational mysteries in life. One of the few some note
Ls love, which they define as the irrational act of substituting another person's self-interest
for
.__ one's own (Becker, 1991). But such a definition makes it difficult to distinguish between
basic altruism, friendship, and romantic love. Indeed, although a rational choice approach
often can be useful, there are some aspects oflife that it cannot explain. Consider an angry
driver who tries to teach a tailgater a lesson by tailgating the tailgater. Self-interest does
not explain this action because the "teacher" is unlikely to personally reap the benefits of a
lesson well learned (Katz, 1999).
tofxlf
Postmodern Theory
Advocates ofpostmodernism claim that the classic social thinkers' idea that history has
a shape- it "goes somewhere" and leads to progress-has collapsed. No longer do any "grand
narratives," or metanarratives-overall conceptions of history or society-make any sense
(Lyotard, 1985). In fact, there is no such thing as history. The postmodern world is not destined, as Marx hoped, to be a socialist one. Instead, it is dominated by the new media, which
"take us out" of our past. Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse. As countless
films, videos, TV programs, and websites circulate images around the world, the many ideas
and values we encounter have little connection with our local or personal histories. Everything seems constantly in flux: "[F]lexibility, diversity, differentiation, and mobility, communication, decentralization and internationalization are in the ascendant. In the process our
own identities, our sense of self, our own subjectivities are being transformed" (Hall, Held,
and McGrew, 1988).
One important theorist of postmodernity,
rational choice approach • More broadly, the
Jean Baudrillard (1929- 2007), believed that the
theory that an individual's behavior is purposive.
electronic media created a chaotic, empty world.
Within the field of criminology, rational choice
analysis argues that deviant behavior is a rational
Despite behig influenced by Marxism m his ea:rly
response to a specific social situation.
years, Baudrillard argued that the spread of
postmodernism • The belief that society
electronic communication and the mass media
is no longer governed by history or progress.
reversed the Marxist theorem that economic
Postmodern society is highly pluralistic and diverse,
forces shape society. Instead, he asserted, social
with no "grand narrative" guiding its development.
life is influenced above all by signs and images.
Modern Theoretical Approaches
21
In a media-dominat ed age, Baudrillard said, meaning is created by t he flow ofimages, as
in TV programs. Much of our world is now a make-believe universe in which we respond to
media images rather than to real persons or places. Thus, when Diana, Princess of Wales,
died in 1997, the worldwide outpouring of grief did not constitute mourning for a real person, because Diana existed for most people only through the media. Her death was more like
an event in a soap opera.
Theoretical Thinking in Sociology
So far we have been discussing theoretical approaches-broad orientations to the subject
matter of sociology. However, there is a dist inction between theoretical approaches and
t heories. Theories are more narrowly focused and attempt to explain particular social conditions or t ypes of events. They are usually formed during the research process and suggest
other problems for subsequent research. An example would be Durkheim's t heory of suicide.
Some theories are lnore encompassing than others. Opinions vary about whether it is
desirable or useful for sociologists to engage in very wide-ranging theoretical endeavors.
Robert K. Merton (1957), for example, argued that sociologists should concentrate on what
he called theories of the middle range. Rather than attempting t o create grand t heoretical
schemes (in the manner of Marx, for instance), we should develop more modest theories.
Middle-range the~es are specific enough to be te~l research, yet sufficiently general to cover a range ofphenom
. Consider the theory ofrelative deprivation,
'Wmctr- o st at ow peop e eva ua e their circumstances depends on whom they compare
themselves to. Thus feelings of deprivation do not conform directly to the level of material
poverty that individuals experience. A family living in a small home in a poor area, where
everyone is in similar circumstances, is likely to feel less deprived than a family living in a
similar house in a neighborhood where other homes are much larger and other people more
affluent.
Indeed, the more wide-ranging and ambitious a theory is, the more difficult it is to test
empirically. Yet there seems no obvious reason t hat theoretical thinking in sociology should
be confined to the "middle range."
Assessing theories in sociology, especially theoretical approaches, is a challenging and
formidable task. The fact that no t heoretical approach dominates t he whole of sociology
might seem to be a sign of weakness in t he subject. But this is not the case: The jostling of
rival theoretical approaches and theories actually expresses t he vitality of the sociological enterprise. In studying human beings (ourselves), theoretical variety rescues us from
dogma. Because human behavior is so complicated, a single theoretical perspective could
microsociology • The study of human
never cover all its aspects. Diversity in theoretibehavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction.
cal thinking provides a rich source of ideas for
macrosociology • The study of large -scale
research and stimulates the imaginative capacigroups, organizations, or social systems.
ties so essential to progress in sociological work.
Levels of Analysis: Microsociology and Macrosociology
An important distinction among theoret ical perspectives involves t he level of analysis each
takes. The study of everyday behavior during face-to-face interaction is microsociology.
Macrosociology is the analysis oflarge-scale social systems, such as the political system
22 CHAPTER 1
What Is Sociology?
Microsociology focuses on face-to-face interactions (a), while macrosociology analyzes large-scale social forces
(b). How might a microsociologist and a macrosociologist analyze this food court differently?
or the economic order. It also includes analysis oflong-term processes of change, such as the
development of industrialism. Although micro analysis and macro analysis may seem distinct from one another, in fact the two are closely connected (Giddens, 1984; Knorr-Cetina
and Cicourel, 1981).
Macro analysis is essential for understanding the institutional background of daily
life, because people's lives are affected by the broader institutional framework. Consider a
comparison of the daily cycle of activities in a medieval culture and in an industrialized
urban environment. In modern societies, we are constantly in contact with strangers. This
contact may be indirect and impersonal. However, no matter how many indirect or electronic relations we enter into, even the most complex societies require the presence of other
people. While we may choose to send an acquaintance just an e -mail message, we can also
choose t o fly thousands of miles to spend the weekend w ith a friend.
Micro studies illuminate broad institutional patterns. Face-to-face interaction is the
basis of all forms of social organization, no matter how large scale. In studying a business cor poration, we could examine face-to-face behavior to analyze, for example, the
interaction of directors in the boardroom,
people working in various offices, or workers on the factory floor. We would not gain
a picture of the whole corporation in this
CONCE 'PT CHECKS /
way b ecause some of its business involves
1. What are the differences between symbolic
pr inted materials, letters, the telephone,
inter actionism and fu nctionalist approaches
and computers. Yet we could certainly
t o th e analysis of society?
contribute significantly to understanding
2. How do ration al choice theorist s explain
how the organization works.
human behavior?
Later chapters will give further exam3. What role does theory play in sociological
research?
ples of how interaction in micro contexts
4 . How are macro and micro analyses of society
affect s larger social processes and how
connected?
macro systems affect the more confined
settings of social life.
-------·--II\_________
IL-----·------------------
Modern Theoretica l Approaches
23
0
HOW CAN SOCIOLOGY HELP US?
As we discussed at the beginning of t}J.e chapter, sociological thinking applies to your
day-to-day life-from college admissions to falling in love. C. Wright Mills emphasized
these practical applications of sociology when developing his idea of the sociological
imagination.
Awareness of Cultural Differences
First, sociology allows us to see the social world from many perspectives. If we properly
understand how others live, we better understand their problems. Practical policies that
lack an informed awareness ofthe ways oflife of people they affect have little chance of success. Thus a white social worker operating in an African American community won't gain
the confidence ofits members without having a sensitivity to the differences in social experience that separate wHite and black in the United States.
Assessing the Effects of Policies
Second, sociological research helps in assessments of the results of policy initiatives. For
example, a program of practical reform may fail to achieve its goals or may produce unintended negative consequences. Consider the large public-housing blocks built in city centers in many countries following World War II. The goal was to provide high standards of
accommodation for low-income groups from slum areas and to offer shopping amenities
and other civic services close at hand. However, research later showed that many people
who had moved to the large apartment blocks felt isolated and unhappy. High-rise apartment blocks and shopping malls in poorer areas often became dilapidated and provided
breeding grounds for muggings and other violent crimes.
Self-Enlightenment
Third, and perhaps most important, sociology can provide us with self-enlightenmentincreased self-understanding. The more we know about our own behavior and how our
society works, the better chance we have to influence our futures. Sociology doesn't just
help policy makers make informed decisions. Those in power may not always consider the
interests of the less powerful or underprivileged when making policies. Self-enlightened
groups can benefit from sociological research by using the information gleaned to respond
to government policies or form policy initiatives oftheir own. Self-help groups such as Alco holics Anonymous (AA) and social movements such as the environmental movement are
examples of social groups that have directly sought practical reforms, with some success.
The Sociologist's Role
Finally, many sociologists address practical matters in their work as professionals-as
industrial consultants, urban planners, social workers, and personnel managers, among
other jobs. An understanding of society also serves those working in law, journalism, business, and medicine.
Those who study sociology frequently develop a social conscience. Should sociologists
themselves agitate for programs of reform or social change? Some argue that sociology
can preserve its intellectual independence only if sociologists remain neutral in moral and
24 CHAPTER 1
What Is So ciolo gy?
political controversies. Yet are scholars who remain aloof more impartial in their assessment of sociological issues than others? No sociologically sophisticated person can be
unaware of the inequalities, the lack of social justice, or the deprivations suffered by millions of people worldwide. It would be strange if sociologists did not take sides on practical
issues, and it would be illogical to ban them from drawing on their expertise in doing so.
We have seen that sociology is a discipline in which we often set aside our personal views
to explore the influences that shape our lives and those of others. Sociology emerged as an
intellectual endeavor along with t he development of modern societies, and the study ofsuch
societies remains its principal concern.
But sociologists are also preoccupied with
the nature of social interaction and human
societies in general.
Sociology has major practical implicaCONCEPT CHECKS
tions for people's lives. Learning to become
a sociologist shouldn't be a dull academic
1. Describe three ways that sociology can help
us in our lives.
endeavor! The best way to make sure of this
2.
What
skills and perspectives do sociologists
is to approach the subject in an imaginative
bring to their work?
way and to relate sociological ideas and
findings to your own life.
How Can Sociology Help Us?
25
0
LEARNING
OBJECTIVES
TERMS
TO KNOW
Learn what sociology encompasses
and how everyday topics are shaped
by social and historical forces.
Recognize that sociology involves
not only acquiring knowledge
but also developing a sociological
imagination.
Learn how sociology originated
and understand the significance
of the intellectual contributions
of early sociolog ists.
Social fact s • Organic solidarity •
Social constraint • Division o f labor •
Anom ie • Mater ialist conception of
histor y • Capitalism • Bureaucracy •
Rationalization
Sociologica l imag inati on • Social
str uctu re • Social constr uction •
Socialization
.,
1. What is the sociological
imagination, according to
C. Wright Mills?
CONCEPT
CHECKS
2. How does sociology he lp us to
-
disentangle biological from
sociological phenomena?
3. How does the concept of social
structure help soc io log ists better
understand social phenomena?
\..
'
1. According to Emile Durkheim ,
what makes sociology a social
science? Why?
2. Accord ing to Karl Marx, what
are the differences between
the two c lasses that make up
a cap itali st society?
e
Be able to identify some of the
leading theorists and distinguish
between their theoretical
approaches to social life.
-- - - - -
0
See the practical implications
of sociology.
Symbolic interactionism • Symbol •
Functional ism • Manifest functions •
Latent functions • Marxism • Power •
Ideologies • Feminist theory •
Rational choice approach •
Postmodernism • Microsociology •
Macrosociology
1. What are the differences between
symbolic interactionism and
functionalist approaches to the
analysis of society?
2. How do rational choice theorists
explain human behavior?
3. What role does theory play in
sociological research?
4. How are macro and micro
analyses of society con nected?
1. Describe three ways that
socio logy can help us in our lives.
2. What skills and perspectives do
sociologists bring to their work?