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Chapter 23 Disorders of Blood Pressure Regulation Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Arterial Blood Pressure (Definitions) • Systolic pressure: pressure at the height of the pressure pulse • Diastolic pressure: the lowest pressure • Pulse pressure: the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure • Mean arterial pressure: the average pressure in the arterial system during ventricular contraction and relaxation Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Arterial Blood Pressure • Represents the pressure of the blood as it moves through the arterial system • Cardiac output = HR x SV • Vascular resistance (VR) • Mean arterial pressure = CO x VR Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Mechanisms of Blood Pressure Regulation • Short-term regulation: corrects temporary imbalances in blood pressure – Neural mechanisms – Humoral mechanisms • Long-term regulation: controls the daily, weekly, and monthly regulation of blood pressure – Renal mechanism Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Factors Determining Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure • Systolic pressure – The characteristics of the stroke volume being ejected from the heart – The ability of the aorta to stretch and accommodate the stroke volume • Diastolic pressure – The energy stored in the aorta as its elastic fibers are stretched during systole – The resistance to the runoff of blood from the peripheral blood vessels Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Kortokoff Sounds • Phase I: marked by the first tapping sound, which gradually increase in intensity • Phase II: period in which a murmur or swishing sound is heard • Phase III: period during which sounds are crisper and greater in intensity • Phase IV: period marked by distinct abrupt muffling or by a soft blowing sound • Phase V: point at which sounds disappear Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Factors Influencing Mean Arterial Blood Pressure • Physical – Blood volume and the elastic properties of the blood vessels • Physiologic factors – Cardiac output – Peripheral vascular resistance Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Question • Which of the following does not directly affect arterial blood pressure? a. Heart rate b. Vascular resistance c. Venous constriction d. Blood volume Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Answer a. Heart rate b. Vascular resistance c. Venous constriction: Venous constriction will not affect arterial pressure, but the other factors will have immediate effects. d. Blood volume Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of Hypertension • Systolic pressure less than 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of less than 80 mm Hg are normal. • Systolic pressures between 120 and 139 mm Hg and diastolic pressures between 80 and 89 mm Hg are considered prehypertensive. • A diagnosis of hypertension is made if the systolic blood pressure is 140 mm Hg or higher and the diastolic blood pressure is 90 mm Hg or higher. • For adults with diabetes mellitus, the goal is BP less than 130/80 mm Hg Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Factors Affecting Hypertension • Age – More common in younger men than younger women – More common in the elderly • Race – More common in blacks than whites • Socioeconomic group – More common in lower socioeconomic groups Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Categories of Hypertension • Primary hypertension (essential hypertension) – Chronic elevation in blood pressure that occurs without evidence of other disease • Secondary hypertension – Elevation of blood pressure that results from some other disorder, such as kidney disease • Malignant hypertension – An accelerated form of hypertension • Systolic hypertension – Systolic pressure of 140 mm Hg or greater and a diastolic pressure of less than 90 mm Hg Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Classifications of Essential Hypertension • Systolic/diastolic hypertension – Both the systolic and diastolic pressures are elevated. • Diastolic hypertension – The diastolic pressure is selectively elevated. • Systolic hypertension – The systolic pressure is selectively elevated. Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Risk Factors for Hypertension • Family history • Age-related changes in blood pressure • Race • Insulin resistance and metabolic abnormalities • Circadian variations • Lifestyle factors Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Lifestyle Factors Contributing to Hypertension • High salt intake • Obesity • Excess alcohol consumption • Dietary intake of potassium, calcium, and magnesium • Oral contraceptive drugs • Stress Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Target Organ Damage • Heart – Hypertrophy • Brain – Dementia and cognitive impairment • Peripheral vascular – Atherosclerosis • Kidney – Nephrosclerosis • Retinal complications Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Drugs Used in the Treatment of Hypertension • Diuretics • β-adrenergic–blocking drugs • Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors • Angiotensin II receptor blockers • Calcium-channel–blocking drugs • Central α2-adrenergic agonists • α1-adrenergic receptor blockers • Vasodilators Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Factors Affecting Treatment Strategies for Hypertension • Lifestyle • Demographics • Motivation for adhering to the drug regimen • Other disease conditions and therapies • Potential for side effects Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Question • Renal failure results in Na+ and water retention. This results in hypertension. How would you classify this type of hypertension? a. Primary hypertension b. Secondary hypertension c. Malignant hypertension d. Systolic hypertension Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Answer a. Primary hypertension b. Secondary hypertension: Secondary hypertension accompanies an underlying disease. c. Malignant hypertension d. Systolic hypertension Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Most Common Causes of Secondary Hypertension • Kidney disease (renovascular hypertension) • Adrenal cortical disorders • Pheochromocytoma • Coarctation of the aorta • Sleep apnea Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Types of Hypertension in Pregnancy • Gestational hypertension • Chronic hypertension • Preeclampsia/eclampsia • Preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Diagnosis and Treatment of Hypertension in Pregnancy • Early prenatal care • Refraining from alcohol and tobacco use • Salt restriction • Bed rest • Carefully chosen antihypertensive medications Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents • Blood pressure norms for children are based on age, height, and gender-specific percentiles. • Secondary hypertension is the most common form of high blood pressure in infants and children. – Kidney abnormalities – Coarctation of the aorta – Pheochromocytoma and adrenal cortical disorders • In infants, hypertension is associated most commonly with high umbilical catheterization and renal artery obstruction caused by thrombosis. Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Orthostatic Hypotension • Definition – An abnormal decrease in blood pressure on assumption of the upright position • Causes – Decrease in venous return to the heart due to pooling of blood in lower part of body – Inadequate circulatory response to decreased cardiac output and a decrease in blood pressure Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Causes of Orthostatic Hypotension • Conditions that decrease vascular volume – Dehydration • Conditions that impair muscle pump function – Bed rest – Spinal cord injury Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Causes of Orthostatic Hypotension (cont.) • Conditions that interfere with cardiovascular reflexes – Medications – Disorders of autonomic nervous system – Effects of aging on baroreflex function Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Common Causes of Orthostatic Hypotension Related to Hypovolemia • Excessive use of diuretics • Excessive diaphoresis • Loss of gastrointestinal fluids through vomiting and diarrhea • Loss of fluid volume associated with prolonged bed rest Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Complaints Associated With Orthostatic Intolerance • Dizziness • Visual changes • Head and neck discomfort • Poor concentration while standing • Palpitations • Tremor, anxiety • Presyncope, and in some cases syncope Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Question • Increased vascular compliance may contribute to which condition? a. Systolic hypertension b. Orthostatic hypotension c. Orthostatic hypertension d. Diastolic hypertension Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Answer a. Systolic hypertension b. Orthostatic hypotension: Orthostatic hypertension is the result of lower pressures, and increased compliance would decrease the vascular resistance and result in lower pressures. c. Orthostatic hypertension d. Diastolic hypertension Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health | Lippincott Williams & Wilkins