Download Outline of Ancient History

Outline of
Ancient
History
The early Helladic to the end
of the classical world
JAMES SCHUUR
I
 3500 BC: THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY BRONZE AGE IN THE NEAR EAST
 3200 BC: Protodynastic Egypt: This is the period when Egypt was unified.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics fully developed [the first pottery hieroglyphs date to
4,000 BC]. In Egypt the palette of Narmer is made for cosmetics. In Persia: ProtoElamite: c. 3200 BC – 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa)
 3000-2000BC: Early Helladic Period in Greece. In Egypt, the world’s first paper,
papyrus and first medical institutions are established.
 3000 BC: [first settlements] the foundation of Troy. Some sites, such as the
acropolis in Athens, had been occupied since the Neolithic age.
 2700-2213 [roughly: there are conflicting dates]BC: The ‘Old Kingdom’ in Egypt.
Memphis is the capital after Menes [in legend] unites the two lands.
1st Dynasty: [3100 (protodynastic) – 2890 BC]
Narmer
Aha
Djer
Djet
Den
Anedjib
Semerkhet
Qaa
II
2nd Dynasty: [2890 – 2686 BC] towards the end of this dynasty was civil
war and disorder.
Hetepsekhemwy
Raneb
Nynetjer
Peribsen
Khasekhem
3rd Dynasty [2686 – 2613 BC] A wealthy and stable period. Djoser built
the first step pyramid.
Sanakht
Djoser
Sekhemkhet
Huni
4th Dynasty: [2613 – 2494 BC] during this period they Giza pyramid was
built.
Sneferu
Cheops
Radjedef
Chephren
III
Menkaura
Shepseskaf
5th Dynasty: [2494 – 2345 BC] the pyramids were smaller during this
period.
Userkaf
Sahura
Neferirkara Kakai
Shepseskara Isi
Raneferef
Nyuserra
Menkauhor Akhauhor
Djedkara Isesi
Unas
6th Dynasty: [2345 – 2181 BC] A period of decay. The last monument of
the Old Kingdom is the pyramid of Pepi II.
Teti
Userkara
Pepy I
Merenra
IV
Pepy II
 2700 BC: in Persia: Old Elamite period: c. 2700 BC – 1600 BC [earliest documents
until the Eparti dynasty].
 2350 B.C: the Pyramid Texts; first written record of formal religion and prayer.
 2300 BC: earliest development of urban centers in Canaan.
 2334 BC: King Sargon ‘the Great’ of Akkad [reigned 2334 – 2279 BC] establishes
Semitic hegemony over Sumerians and Elamites. His two sons Rimush and
Manishtushu were mediocre and were both assassinated.
 2235 BC: Naram-Sin, grandson of Sargon the Great, assumes rule [2235 – 2219
BC] of Akkadian Empire. This is the zenith of Akkadian power. He is the first
Mesopotamian king to claim divinity.
 2150 BC: Akkadian Empire ends. Ur begins ascendancy.
 2100 BC – 2000 BC: the ‘Sumerian Renaissance’
 2100 BC: The Hymn to the Nile is written in Egypt.
 2100-1150 BC: Middle and Late Minoan Period Crete, Palace at Cnossus is 4
stories high, and has working plumbing.
 2052-1786 [or: 2125 – 1550] BC: Egyptian ‘Middle Kingdom, Thebes is established
as the capital by the ‘Nomarchs,’ or governors of the Nomes. Egypt also began
military expansions of conquest and enslavement into Nubia.
11th Dynasty: [2125 – 1991 BC]
The Middle Kingdom begins with the
reunification of the country.
V
Intef I
Intef II
Intef III
Mentuhotep I
Mentuhotep II
Mentuhotep III
12th Dynasty: [1991 – 1782 BC] the capital moved back to Memphis. A
revival of Old Kingdom styles.
Amenemhet I
Sesostris I
Amenemhet II
Sesostris II
Sesostris III
Amenemhet III
Queen Sobeknefru
13th Dynasty: [1782 – 1650 BC]
Wegaf
Intef IV
VI
Hor
Sobekhotep II
Khendjer
Sobekhotep III
Neferhotep I
Sobekhotep IV
Ay
Neferhotep II
15th Dynasty: [1650 – 1550 BC] it was during this period that the Hyksos
sacked Memphis and built their capital at Avaris in the Delta.
Sheshi
Yakobher
Khyan
Apepi I
Apepi II
16th Dynasty: [1650 – 1550 BC]
Anther
Yakobaam
VII
17th Dynasty: [1650 – 1550 BC] while the Hyksos ruled in the north a new
native line of rulers developed in the south at Thebes.
Sobekemsaf
Intef VIII
Tao I
Tao II
Kamose
 2004 BC: Ur III dynasty collapses under the weight of an Elamite invasion.
 2000 BC: THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IN THE NEAR
EAST
 2000 BC: First inscriptions of Assyrian rulers appear after this point.
 1900 BC: Amorites found Babylon
 1900 BC: [circa] Abraham came from Ur into the land of the Canaanites
 1813 – 1791 BC: rule of Shamshi-Adad I after his conquest of Ashur.
 1792-1750 BC: Hammurabi's reign
 1700-1575 BC: Hyksos invasion of Egypt
 1680-1150 BC: Mycenaens rise to power in Greece.
 1600 BC: THE BEGINNING OF THE LATE BRONZE AGE IN THE NEAR EAST
VIII
 1600 BC: Babylon falls to Hittites and Kassites. In Canaan the death of the
Patriarch Isaac [born: 1737] – traditional Jewish dates.
 1575-1087BC: Egyptian "New Kingdom," [1550 – 1295] Adopt military techniques
of Hyksos, Thutmose III (1490-1436 BC) extends Egypt into Palestine and Syria,
struggle with Hittites
18th Dynasty: [1550 – 1295] the foundations of the powerful New
Kingdom were laid at this stage. Ahmose expelled the Hyksos.
Ahmose
Amenhotep I
Thutmose I
Thutmose II
Hatshepsut
Thutmose III
Amenhotep II
Thutmose IV
Amenhotep III
Amenhotep IV
Neferneferuaten
Tutenkhamen
IX
Ay
Horemheb
19th Dynasty: [1295 – 1186] Egypt as super-power.
Ramses I
Set I
Ramses II
Merenptah
Amenmessu
Sety II
Saptah
Tausret
20th Dynasty: [1186 – 1069] Ramses III was the last great king of Egypt.
He defeated the Sea People who swept across the Mediterranean world.
Egypt began to suffer economic difficulties and was unable to exploit the
revolution 0f the Iron Age.
Setnakht
Ramses III
Ramses IV
Ramses V
X
Ramses VI
Ramses VII
Ramses VIII
Ramses IX
 1500 BC: Hittites Establish state in Asia Minor
 1490-1438 or 1479-1426 BC: Exodus of the Hebrew Tribes from Egypt [early date
based on latest ecidence as of 2007 concurrent with the eruption of the Santorini
volcano on Thera].
 1407 [circa] BC: beginning of conquest of Canaan by Joshuah.
 1400 BC: Athens is a powerful Mycenaean center.
 1367-1350 BC: Amenhotep IV, change worship to Aton (a universal god),
Married to Nefertiti
 1367-1050 BC: The Era of the Book of Judges [according to some sources].
 1367 – 1327 BC: Othniel judges Hebrews [all these dates are approximate]
 1335 BC-1308 BC: General Haremhab becomes pharaoh and builds an empire.
 1309-1229 BC: Ehud judges Hebrews
 1300 BC: THE BEGINNING OF THE IRON AGE IN THE NEAR EAST
 1300 BC: Shalmaneser I revolts from Babylonian rule and begins period of
Assyrian expansion.
XI
 1250 BC: Mycenaens sack Troy, basis for Iliad and Odyssey. Trojan exiles under
Aeneas begin their long, hard journey to Hesperia.
 1209-1169BC: Deborah judges Hebrews
 1200 BC: Hittites die out
 1200 BC -1100 BC: the return of the Heraclids in the ‘Dorian Invasion’ puts end
to Mycenae. Greek ‘Dark Ages;’ Linear B script and all writing disappears.
 1162 BC -1122 BC: Gideon judges Hebrews
 1120 BC: Tiglath-Pileser I may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian
empire. In 1120 BC, he crossed the Euphrates, capturing Carchemish, defeated
the Mushki and the remnants of the Hittites—even claiming to reach the Black
Sea—and advanced to the Mediterranean, subjugating Phoenicia.
He also
marched into Babylon twice, assuming the old title "King of Sumer and Akkad"
 1100 BC: In Persia: Neo-Elamite period: c. 1100 BC – 539 BC (characterized by
Iranian and Syrian influence. 539 BC marks the beginning of the Achaemenid
period)
 1100 BC – 1000 BC: submycenaean pottery in Greece.
 1075 BC-1020 BC: Samuel judges Hebrews
 1050 BC-1010/1003 BC: Saul’s rule of Hebrew nation. The year 1050 BC saw the
first Greek colony, Cumae in Italy, founded.
 1048 BC: The Biblical Battle of Michmash.
 1000 BC: Neo-Hittites Defeat Mittanians, Liberating Assyria
XII
 1000 BC: David’s reign [Albright]: 1000 BC – 962 BC. It is around this time that
Jerusalem is captured by David.
 1000 BC: Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites and Latins immigrating from East to Italy.
Latins settle in Latium. The Scythians begin to expand into greater Iran.
 1000 BC – 800 BC: protogeometric pottery in Greece
 962 BC: Solomon begins reign [Albright] 962 BC – 922 BC.
 922 BC – 915 BC: Rehoboam, last king of united Israel, reigns
 922 / 921 BC: Israel splits from Judah, reign of Jeroboam over Israel; from 922 BC
– 901 BC
 915 BC – 913 BC: Reign of Abijam in Judah. Attempted to subjugate northern
kingdom of Israel against prophetic warnings and failed.
 913 BC – 873 BC: Reign of Asa in Judah. Under the promptings of the prophet
Azariah he purged idolatry and attempted a return to Judaism.
 901 BC – 900 BC: Reign of Nadab over Israel.
 900 BC – 877 BC: Reign of Baasha over Israel.
 883 BC – 859 BC: Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II begins ruthless expansion of
empire.
 877 BC – 876 BC: Reign of Elah over Israel.
 876 BC: Zimri; chariot commander & assassin of Elah who reigned 7 days when
the army, disapproving of him, overthrew him for his successor.
XIII
 876 BC – 869 BC: Reign of Omri over Israel. A powerful and diplomatically
skilled king he was one of the north’s best. But, the culture clash between the
traditionalists of Judaism [this period begins the career of Elijah the Prophet] and
the pagan influenced aristocracy intensified during his reign.
 869 BC – 850 BC: Reign of Ahab over Israel. While this period was economically
good for the north [except during a famine] the social strife continued.
 858 BC – 823 BC: rule of Assyrian king Shalmaneser III.
 850 BC – 849 BC: Reign of Ahaziah over Israel. He continued in the wicked ways
of his parents.
 873 BC – 849 BC: Reign of Jehoshaphat in Judah. Joined Israel in a war against
the Moabites and attempted top reform paganism form people of Judah.
 849 BC – 842 BC: Reign of Jehoram. Close ally with Israel but shaky. Edom
permanently revolted form control by Judah.
 849 BC – 842 BC: Reign of Israelite Jehoram.
 842 BC: Ahaziah reigns and is killed at Megiddo.
 842 BC – 837 BC: Rule of Athaliah, pagan queen of Judah.
 842 BC – 815 BC: Reign of Jehu over Israel.
 837 BC – 800 BC: Reign of Jehoash in Judah. Initially a reformer of the True
Religion in his old age he drifted towards paganism.
 825 BC: Founding of Carthage by Phoenicians of Tyre.
XIV
 815 BC – 801 BC: Reign of Jehoahaz over Israel.
 801 BC – 786 BC: Reign of Jehoash over Israel. He continued to tolerate the
Golden Calves but was personally pious towards God and devoted to the
prophet Elisha.
 800 BC: Etruscan culture appears in Italy. Around this time the first minor
bronzes are made by Greeks.
 800 BC -700 BC: rise of Poleis as the monarchies loose power in Greece.
 800 BC – 725 BC: geometric pottery in Greece.
 800 BC – 783 BC: Reign of idolatrous Amaziah in Judah.
 786 BC – 746 BC: Reign of Jeroboam II over Israel.
This was Israel’s most
prosperous period, but one that saw great social inequity and disregard for
Judaism as witnessed by the prophets Hosea, Joel and Amos.
 783 BC – 742 BC: Reign of Uzziah, one of Judah’s reformer and best kings. A
high-watermark of Judean influence. Beginning of Isaiah’s career as a prophet.
 776 BC: the first Olympiad in Greece. The Hellenes first employ writing to
commemorate their history.
 775 BC-650 BC: Greek colonization in the west begins.
 753 BC: The founding of the city of Rome on April 21st.
 753 BC – 717 BC: The reign of Romulus, son of Mars, as first king of the Romans
 752 BC: the executive office of Archon in Athens is limited to ten years.
XV
 750 BC: [circa] through the middle-men the Phoenicians an alphabet immigrates
to Greece and writing reappears. The earliest settlements on the Palatine Hill in
what would become Rome according to archeologists.
 747 BC– 727 BC: Reign of Tiglath Pilesar III in Assyria.
 746 BC: Reign of Zechariah over Israel.
 745 BC: reign of Shallum over Israel.
 745 BC – 738 BC: Reign of Menahem over Israel.
 743 BC – 724 BC: the First Messenian War. The Spartans begin their domination
of the Peloponnesian region.
 742 BC – 735 BC: Reign of Jotham in Judah.
 738 BC – 737 BC: Reign of Pekahiah over Israel.
 737 BC – 732 BC: Reign of Pekah over Israel.
 735 BC – 715 BC: Reign of wicked king Ahaz in Judah. This same year [735 BC]
marks the first Greek settlements in Sicily.
 732 BC – 722 BC: Reign of Hoshea, last king over Israel before the dispersion of
the 10 Tribes by Shalmaneser V of Assyria.
 727 BC– 722 BC: rule of Shalmaneser V. After his death the Assyrian crown
passed to the Sargonid Dynasty.
 725 BC: Sparta invades Messenia and institutes slavery of the Helots.
 725 BC – 625 BC: protocorinthian pottery in Greece.
XVI
 722 BC: Assyrians conquer Israel
 715 BC – 687 BC: Reign of Hezekiah in Judah. One of her greatest kings, he was
a reformer; he saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and constructed the famous
tunnel from the Pool of Siloam.
 715 BC – 673 BC: Reign of Numa Pomilius in Rome. The institution of formal
Roman religion. In response to his piety and wisdom, Jupiter, it is said, caused a
shield inscribed with prophecy to fall upon the Palatine Hill.
 705 BC: Sennacherib assumes power in Assyrian after the assassination of his
father Sargon. He moves the capital to Nineveh.
 701 BC: Jerusalem miraculously delivered from Passover siege by Assyrian king
Sennacherib.
 700 BC – 625 BC: protoattic pottery in Greece.
 700 BC: Greek Poet Hesiod, in Works and Days gives us portrait of rural Greek
life. Around this same time period lived and sang the bard Homer.
In 700 BC
the first Peripteral temple was built in Samos.
 700 BC – 650 BC: the diffusion of Hoplite tactics.
 700 BC - 500 BC: Era of the Tyrants.
 700BC – 500BC: the flourishing of the Tartesessos [Tarshis] culture on the Iberian
Peninsula.
 687 BC – 642 BC: Reign of Manasseh in Judah, perhaps her worst and most
wicked king.
XVII
 685 BC – 688 BC: the Second Messenian War in which the subjugated
Messenians, now Helots, attempt to revolt against Spartan rule.
 683 BC: the office of Archon in Athens is reduced to a term of one year.
 681 BC: Sennacherib assassinated and succeeded by his son Esarhaddon.
 673 BC – 642 BC: Reign of Tullus Hostilius in Rome. The war with Alba Longa,
mother city of the Latin, for supremacy. In this war was the famous battle of the
Roman triplets, the Horatii, against their triplet counterparts from Alba Longa,
the Curiatii.
 642 BC – 617 BC: Reign of Ancus Marcius in Rome.
Under him Roman
hegemony begins to expand over other Latin towns. He founded the colony of
Ostia and instituted the Festiales whose duty it was to demand satisfaction from
foreign states.
 642 BC – 640 BC: Reign of Amon in Judah.
 640 BC – 609 BC: Reign of Josiah in Judah, among the greatest of reformers and
restores of the Biblical religion. The prophet Jeremiah begins his career in the
13th year of his reign. In Greece around this time marble statuary begins.
 665 BC: Assyria Controls Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt-drive Israelites from homeland
 650 BC: Helot slave revolt nearly destroys Sparta. Spartans start strict military
mobilization.
 632 BC: Cylon tries unsuccessfully to become tyrant of Athens.
XVIII
 630 BC – 480 BC: era of the archaic kouroi.
 630 BC: Death of Spartan lawgiver and founder of the Spartan social system,
Lycurgus [born: 700 BC]. Around this period Greeks found the city of Cyrene in
North Africa.
 627 BC: death of Ashurbanipal & beginning of rapid decline of Assyrian Empire.
 625 BC – 550 BC: era of the Corinthian vase.
 625 BC – 425 BC: Athenian black figures
 621 BC: Draco given authority to codify Athenian law but takes things from bad
o worse by applying the death penalty to all crimes; petty theft to murder.
 616 BC – 579 BC: Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Prisus / Tarquin the Elder in Rome.
This begins the period of Etruscan domination in Rome. He defeated the Sabines
and took more Latin towns. He also built the sewers and instituted the Roman
Games or Circus. He raised the number of Senators by 100, making 300 total.
 612 BC: Urartu is conquered by neo-Babylonian king Nabopolasar & Cyaxares
the Mede. In Athens that year Cylon, on of the nobles, hatches a plot to deprive
his fellow Eupatrids [nobles] of power and rule as sole tyrant. His conspirators
seize the Acropolis but the plot fails. He escapes but his fellows take refuge at
the altar. The Archon Megacles offers them amnesty but kills them once outside
the sacred precincts.
 610 BC: Nineveh falls to the Medes and their allies.
 609 BC: Reign of Jehoahaz in Judah.
XIX
 609 BC - 598 BC: Reign of Jehoiakim in Judah. A disastrous reign and return of
idolatry.
 600 BC: Foundation of Greek city of Massalia [Marseilles].
Solon recovers
Salamis which had revolted from Athens to the city of Megara. By this date the
Doric order of capitals was evolved.
 600’s BC: famine compels Athenian and Attic unity.
 598 BC – 597 BC: Reign of Jeconiah in Judah. He was taken to Babylon with the
aristocrats and artisans of Judah circa 592 BC.
 597 BC – 587 BC: Reign of Zedekiah, last king of Judah. In the 11th year of his
reign the Babylonians plundered and ruined Jerusalem. Attempting to flea he
was captured, his sons murdered and he was then blinded. Athens is struck by
plague and this is abated when the city is purified by the Cretan prophet
Epimendes, following the advice of the Oracle at Delphi.
 594 BC: Athenians elect Solon to be sole Archon [there were previously 9]. His
reforms include an amnesty of debt and the creation of a senate of 400 citizens,
the Areopagus.
 593 BC – 573 BC: The prophetic career of Ezekiel.
 595 BC – 585 BC: The First Sacred War; was fought between the Amphictyonic
League of Delphi and the city of Kirrha. The conflict arose due to Kirrha's
frequent robbery and mistreatment of pilgrims to Delphi and from
encroachments upon Delphic land. The war resulted in the defeat and
destruction of Kirrha.
XX
 585 BC: Cilicia & Babylon negotiate a peace with the Medes to halt their attack on
Lydia.
 586 BC: Judah defeated by Chaldean King named Nebuchadnezzer II Beginning
of 70 years Babylonian Exile.
 578 – 535 BC: Reign of Servius Tullius in Rome. The Severian Census and
limited expansion of political power to the Plebeians. He also divided the 3
Gentile Tribes into 4 tribes and expanded the Pomerium [Sacred boundaries of the
city].
 560 BC -546 BC: Croesus, King of Lydia, takes control of some Greek colonies.
 560 BC: the Ionic order was evolved by this date.
 559: in Persia begins the First Persian Dynasty: Achaemenid Persian Empire
[559 BC–338 BC] the founder of this dynasty was supposedly Achaemenes. He
was succeeded by his son Teispes, who first took the title King of Anšān after
seizing Anšān city from the Elamites. Inscriptions indicate that when Teispes
died, two of his sons shared the throne as Cyrus, king of Anšān, and Ariaramnes
king of Parsua (later called Pārsa, that is, Persia Proper). They were succeeded by
their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan, and Arsames of Iran (Persia). This
was the period of Cyrus the Great.
In this same year Solon of Athens, lawgiver
and statesman, died [born: 639 BC]
 550 BC: Spartan cups, bronze vessels. The Temple of Apollo was completed at
Corinth.
 546 BC: Psistratus establishes a tyranny in Athens
XXI
 546 BC: Lydia, and Greek colonies she held, are captured by Cyrus of Persia.
 540 BC: The Battle of Alalia; Carthage & Etruscans check advance of Greek
power in western Mediterranean. In the same year was the death of Greek
elegiac poet Theognis of Megara.
 536 BC: Cyrus the Great of Persia issues a decree allowing the Jews to return and
rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. A small group of 42,360 pioneers return under
the leadership of Zerubbabel. The altar is restored under Jeshua the son of Jozak
the Priest & Zerubbabel son of Shiealtiel in the month of September. The daily
sacrifice is renewed.
active.
In this period the prophets Haggai and Zechariah were
The last of this group was Malachi [whom some Jewish authorities
identify with Mordecai] who sealed the prophetic era.
 535 BC – 510 BC: Reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus / the Proud in Rome. His
first act was the abolition of all rights and gains made by the people and forced
labor conscriptions upon the poor. While the foundations of the Capitol were
being excavated for expansions the Sibylline Books were discovered. He forced
the Gabii to enter the Latin League. His reign ended and with it Etruscan
domination of Rome after Brutus led a popular revolt against the tyrant. The
exhausted people were finally outraged by the rape of the pious Roman matron
Lucretia by his son Sextus Tarquinius.
 530 BC: Peplos Kore
 530 BC – 350 BC: red figures in Greek vases
 529 BC: Persia gains the Assyria empire. Cyrus the Great occupies Babylon.
 527 BC: Power passes from Psistratus to son, Hippias
XXII
 524 BC: Etruscans defeated at Cumae.
 522: In Persia: Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, but died in July 522 BC
as the result of either accident or suicide, during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan
that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. These priests, who
Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gaumata,
 521 BC: Darius becomes Great King of Persia
 520 BC: death of Greek philosopher Pythagoras of Samos [re-born: 580 BC].
 515 BC: In Judaea the Second Temple is dedicated in the sixth year of the Persian
king Darius Hystapes.
 514 BC: the assassination of Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus, in Athens.
 510 BC: Alcamaeonids ally with Sparta to drive out Hippias put Isagoras in
power; Clisthenes overthrows him and democracy is established in Athens. The
Alcmaeonidae family, who had been exiled from Athens, requested that Sparta
help them overthrow Hippias, the son of Pisistratus and tyrant of Athens. The
Alcmaeonidae, led by Cleisthenes, bribed the oracle at Delphi to tell the Spartans
to assist them, and Cleomenes came to their aid. The first attack on Athens was a
failure, but Cleomenes personally led the second attack and besieged Hippias
and his supporters on the Acropolis. He was unable to force Hippias to
surrender, but the Spartans captured some of Hippias' relatives and took them
hostage until he agreed to give up the city. Cleisthenes and Isagoras then fought
for control of Athens. Cleomenes came with an armed force to support Isagoras,
and they forced Cleisthenes and the Alcmaeonidae family to go into exile for a
second time. Cleomenes also abolished the Boule, a council set up by Cleisthenes,
XXIII
and occupied the Acropolis. The citizens of Athens objected to this and forced
him out of the city. The following year Cleomenes gathered an army, intending
to set up Isagoras as tyrant, and invaded Attica. The Corinthians in his force
refused to attack Athens once they learned of Cleomenes' plan, and the invasion
failed. Cleomenes realized a democratic Athens threatened Sparta's preeminence in Greece, and tried again to gather an army to restore Hippias as
tyrant, but Sparta's allies disliked tyranny and refused to help. This year alos
saw the completion of the marble pediments, Athens.
 509 BC: Founding of the Roman Republic and establishment of the Consulship.
The first Consuls were L. Brutus & Tarquinius Collatinus. But, due to popular
hatred of the Tarquin P. Valerius replaced him. War with the Etruscans begins.
 508 BC: the Reform of Cleisthenes at Athens: he divides Attica into demes. In
Rome, the delaying action of Horatius Cocles saves Rome from the Etruscans.
War with the 30 city Latin League that supported the Etruscans.
 502 BC: death of Greek philosopher Anaximenes.
 500’s BC: Gold and silver coins come into use.
 500 BC: Peak of Etruscan power
 499 BC: Aristogoras, tyrant of Miletus, organizes an Ionian rebellion against
Persians
 498 BC: Athenians make surprise attack on Sardis, seat of Persian satrap
 498 BC - 467 BC: The Persian Wars
XXIV
 495 BC Persians wipe out Miletus and reconquer lost territories. The beginning
of the period the Persian wars.
 494 BC: First Secession of the Plebs in Rome & establishment of the Tribunes of
the Plebs.
 491 BC – 466 BC: Tyrannies of Gelon & Hieron create a Greek power-base on
Syracuse, Sicily. In 491, in a plot of revenge Cleomenes [who had used a Spartan
army to impose the tyranny of Isagoras over Athens in reaction to the democratic
reforms] uses the Spartans to depose Demaratus from Athens based upon a claim
of illegitimacy. In exile he goes to the Persian court. After the deposition of
Demaratus, Cleomenes visited the island of Aegina for a second time,
accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens
and deposited them at Athens as hostages.
 490 BC: Miltiades leads Athens victory over invading Persians hordes at the
battle of Marathon on September 11 [our calendar].
 488 BC: The Roman traitor C. Marcius Coriolanus leads the Volscians in a war
against Rome. His mother Veturia pleads with him to stop and saves the city by
ending the war.
 485 BC: Xerxes [485 – 465] takes the Achaemenid crown.
 481 BC: Xerxes, Persian Great King, raises a mammoth force to destroy Western
Civilization by the conquest of Greece.
 480 BC: Themistocles’ plan for Athenian navy gives them 200 ships. Spartan
King Leonidas makes an heroic holding action at Thermopylae. Greek League
XXV
formed for defense.
In the same year the Greek philosopher Xenophanes of
Colophon dies.
 479 BC: the Athenian navy destroys the Persian navy at the Battle of Salamis.
Spartan general Pausanius crushes Persian general Mardonius at Battle of
Palatea. Spartan co-king Leotychidas defeats the Persian King at the Battle of
Mycale.
 479 BC – 431 BC: The Pentecontaetia in Greece.
 479 /478 BC: Themistocles tricks the Spartans while Athens rebuilds the walls.
He also fortified Piraeus.
The Spartan hero Pausanius leads an expedition
against Cyrus and Byzantium.
 478/477 BC: Pausanius returned to Sparta under a cloud. His arrogance in Asia
Minor cost Sparta possible leadership of the forming Delian League.
 477 BC: Athenian-dominated Delian League founded to protect against Persian
attack. The fortification of Athens began. In Rome, the Fabia Gens battle the
Veientines alone.
 476 BC – 467 BC: the Delian League takes military action against Scyros, Eion,
Caryseus & Naxos. A rebellion in Thasos was put down by Athens.
 470 BC: Tyrannicides Group
 467 BC -462 BC: Athens led by Cimon, son of Miltiades
 467 BC: Delian League defeats Persia at battle of Eurymedon River
XXVI
 466 BC: restoration of democracy to Syracuse. At Sparta an earthquake prevents
her from aiding Thasos and triggers a helot revolt. Sparta request, receives and
then rejects Athenian aid. This action is the justification for the Athenian break
with Sparta.
 465 BC: Cimon leaves Athens to fight revolt of isle of Thasos against Delian
League. In Persia Atraxerxes inherits the throne [465 – 424] and moved the
capital from Persepolis to Babylon. Aramaic comes in linguistic prominence in
the empire, replacing Elam.
 462 BC: Pericles persecutes Cimon, rises to power in Athens
 461 BC: Radical reforms of the legal system at Athens by Ephialates.
 460 BC: Sparta and Athens clash over the city of Megara, a key factor that will
cause the Peloponnesian War. The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was completed.
 460 BC – 430 BC: Phidias & the Parthenon. Athens sends ships [460 BC] to aid an
Egyptian rebellion against Persian tyranny.
 458 BC: The Senate appointed dictator Cincinnatus saves Rome from the
Aequians. One day after his triumph he surrenders power and returns to his
simple farm. In Judaea Ezra the Scribe returns to lead the struggling Jewish
community in Jerusalem [others argue he arrived in 398 BC]. He will found the
Great Assembly and was one of the key figures in renewing Judaism. He was a
second Moses.
 455 BC: death of the Greek playwright Aeschylus.
XXVII
 454 BC: an Athenian fleet under Pericles fails to take Oeniadae. This same year
the Egyptian’s destroyed the Athenian fleet and the city failed to install a
Thessalian king.
 451 BC – 449 BC: The tyranny of the Decemvirate in Rome.
 451 BC: Athens and Sparta vie for control of the Delphi. That same year Athens
defeated the Persians at Cyprus.
 450 BC: Roman law first codified in Twelve Tables. Myron.
 449 BC: in Rome the Second Secession of the Plebs occurs.
 449 BC – 448 BC: The Second Sacred War; The war erupted when Sparta
detached Delphi from Phocis and rendered it independent, handing it back to the
Delphians. The Athenians were however champions of the Phocians. Thereby, in
448 BC, Pericles led the Athenian army against Delphi, in order to reinstate
Phocis in its former sovereign rights on the oracle of Delphi. Immediately after
the Spartans had left, they recaptured Delphi and handed it back to the Phocians.
 448 BC: Pericles inaugurates a great building program on the acropolis.
 447 BC - 446 BC: The Boeotians defeat the Athenians at Coronea, recovering their
independence. Revolts take place at Megara & Euboea. A Pelopponesian army
invades Attica but turns back at he boarder as the omens are not good. Megara
joins the Pelopponesian Alliance.
 446 BC: Sparta and Athens conclude a 30 years peace treaty. In the same year the
Ionian philosopher Thales [born: 636 BC] dies.
 445 BC: death of Greek philosopher Parmenides of Elea [born: 515 BC].
XXVIII
 443 BC: Appointment of the first [3] Censors in Rome.
 441 BC – 440 BC: Samos [assisted by Persia] and Byzantium revolt against
Athens. She forces Samos to submit and Byzantium surrenders.
 440 BC: Herodotus publishes Histories. Polyclitus
 437 BC: Siege and capture of the Veii by the Romans. First capture of the Spolia
Opima by A. Cornelius Cossus from their king.
 438 BC: death of Greek poet Pindar [born: 518 BC].
 435 BC: The Epidamnian Affair: a civil war in Epidamnus leads to military
conflict between Corinth and Corcyra. A Corinthian fleet is defeated by the
Corcyreans off Leukimme. The Corcyreans raid Leucas and Cyllene. Corinth
establishes bases at Actium and Thesprotis.
 433 BC: Corcyra, alarmed by Corinthian war plans, sends envoys to Athens to
seek aid.
They gain the support, mostly, they desired by making a solely
defensive alliance. The Corinthians have a victory at Sybota [Athenian ships at
Sybota prevented a complete Corcyrean rout.] and take Anactorium. Sparta
promises to support at revolt at Potidaea by invading Attica.
 432 BC: the Athenian fleet arrives at Potidaea to find it already in revolt and lays
siege. Corinth volunteers to aid the rebels and Sparta votes for was. This year
also saw a hero fall: the flight of Themistocles which eventually ended with him
serving in a Persian royal court.
 431 BC – 434 BC: The Peloponnesian War Part I: The Archidaemian War.
XXIX
 431 BC: war begins when Thebes launches a surprise attack against Plataea.
Under Pericles Athens steers a cautious course, retreating into the wall and not
engaging the Spartans directly on their first foray into Attica [they did not
occupy the territory]. The Athenian fleet raids Laconia, Methode [defended by
the great Spartan general Brasidas] and Pheia in Elis. The Athenians fortified the
island of Atlanta and under Pericles launch their first invasion of Megara. The
Athenians conclude alliances with the Thracians and Perdiccas, king of Macedon.
The Greek philosopher Empedocles of Acragas dies [born: 492 BC].
 430 BC – 310 BC: Athenian classical gravestones
 430 BC: the Corinthian fleet raids Acarnania and Cephallenia. The Pelopponesian
fleet raids Zacynthus. That summer the Spartans raid Attica for a second time,
this foray lasting 40 days before they retire. Afterwards an Athenian envoy to
Sparta fails to reach a peace agreement. Death of Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea
[born: 490 BC]. Plague strikes Athens. Twenty-five percent of the population is
killed in the densely packed city behind new-built walls. This weakens them and
prevents aid to Potidaea.
 429 BC: Pericles dies of plague. The Spartans assault Plataea. Defeat of the
Athenian fleet at Chalcidice and the Peloponnesians are defeated at Stratus in
Acarnania. Phormio defeats the Pelopponesian fleet near Naupactus. In the
winter a small Spartan raid against Piraeus causes panic in Athens. Sitalces
launches his Thracian army at Macedonia and Chalcidice.
 428 BC: Lesbos revolts and seeks aid from Sparta. An Athenian fleet blockades
the island by sea. The Peloponnesians invade Attica again as Athenian ships
under Phormio raid the shore of Peloponnesus. Sparta prepares to aid Lesbos
XXX
but eh Athenians deploy 100 triremes to deter her. That winter they send
Salaethus to encourage Mytilene and the Plataeans escape to Athens. Greek
philosopher Anaxagoras of Clasomenae dies [born: 499 BC].
 427 BC: The Spartans send a fleet under Alcidas to aid the Lesbians but in
Mytilene the commons force the city to be surrender to the Athenians. When the
Spartan fleet arrives and learns of this they retreat. That summer the Athenians
in council vote to commit genocide against Mytilene. However, after the ship is
sent with the orders they reconsider amid fiery debates. The second ship arrives
to counterman the orders just the first decree as being read. The Athenians
capture the island of Minoa near Megara and Plataea surrenders. The Spartans
condemn those who remained to death. In Corcyra a bloody revolution breaks
out. That winter plague returns to Athens.
 426 BC: Earthquakes in the Isthmus turn back another Spartan invasion of Attica.
In one of the worst acts of the war the Athenians violate the neutrality of Melos
and commit genocide against the inhabitants.
Oropus from which troops march to Tangra.
After this crime they sail to
An Athenian fleet also sails to
Naupactus, against which the Aetolians urge a combined attack by Sparta &
Corinth. Demosthenes raids Leucas and attacks Aetolia, only to be routed at
Aegitium. A Pelopponesian army under Eurylochus assembles at Delphi to aid
Aetolia. Acaranian troops arrive at Naupactus in time to thwart the assault.
That winter the Athenians purify Delos the Ambraciots attack Amphilochia,
aided by the Spartans. The Arcananians and Athenians under Demosthenes aid
them and gain a victory; Demosthenes returns from Amphilochia in triumph.
XXXI
 425 BC: Herodotus, ‘Father of History,’ dies [born: 484 BC]. Athens’s fleet to
Sicily is ordered to allow Demosthenes to us in an attack on the Pelopponesian
shore. They disembarked and occupy the shore and islands around the ruins of
Pylos. Upon learning of the Athenian fort there, the Spartan army returns form
their foray into Attica. The Spartan fleet is defeated by the Athenians and a
group of 400 Spartans are trapped on an island. Calling a truce Sparta sends
envoys to Athens but Cleon persuades the assembly to continue the war. The
assembly chooses Cleon to lead the attack in Pylos and this same summer Nicias
raids Corinth. Their fleet successfully defends the city from Athens. Civil strife
in Corcyra causes strife in the city.
 424 BC: The Athenian fleet under Nicias captures Cythera and raids Thyre.
There is an eclipse.
The Lesbians exiles capture Antandrus. An Athenian
squadron prevents them for fortifying their position. In Athens the general
returning form Sicily are punished and their fleet attacks Megara and occupy
Nisea, but, fail to attack the rapidly assembled Spartans and Thebans under
Brasidas. He then marches swiftly through Thessaly to Macedonia and Thrace,
makes peace with Lyncestis and persuades Acanthus to revolt form Athens. The
Acaranians force Oeniadae to join Athens and Demosthenes subdues Agraea.
Athens declares was on Perdiccas. That winter Athens’s assault against Boeotia
is betrayed and goes haywire but they fortify Delium, which they soon loose.
Demosthenes raid on Sicyon fails and the Megarians recapture their long walls.
Brasidas defeats Thucydides [who saves Eion] at the battle of Amphipolis also
taking Acte and Torone.
 423 BC: Darius II [423 – 404 BC] becomes king of Persia. Athens and Sparta
agree to a one-year truce. But, after the date of ratification but before they were
XXXII
notified on the front, Scione and Mende revolt from Athens and joins Brasidas.
He then joins the Macedonians against Lyncestis. Athens retakes Mendes and
lays siege to Scione. Brasidas fails to take Potidaea.
 422 BC: the truce ends and the Athenians expel the Delians. Cleon takes an
Athenian army to Thrace and retakes Torone. Both Cleon and Brasidas die at the
second Battle of Amphipolis. Peace of Nicias: 50 years of peace are guaranteed
ending the Peloponnesian War [part I].
 421 BC: the god at Delphi orders Athens to allow the exiles to return to Delos.
However, in retaking Scione they commit genocide. Sparta liberates Arcadian
subjects of Mantinea and Athens responds to their request to withdraw
Messenians from Pylos. In the winter the Olynthians take Mecyberna from
Athens. After Sparta and Boeotia fail to ally they join separate alliances.
 420 BC: Greek philosopher Leucippus of Miletus dies [born: 480 BC]. Alcibiades
outwits the Spartan envoys and creates an alliance with Athens, Argos, Mantinea
and Elis. The later excludes Sparta from the Olympic Games.
 419 BC: Boeotians occupy Heraclea-in-Trachis. Alcibiades marches a small force
through the Peloponnesus. War begins between Argos and Epidaurus. The
Athenians return the Messenians to Pylos.
 418 BC: Spartans and allies surround the Argives near Argos but grant them a
truce to return home. Alcibiades persuades them to break the truce and attack
Orchomenus and Tegea. The Argive alliance is defeated soundly at the battle of
Mantinea.
Argos then allies with Sparta.
That winter Athenian forces
withdrawal from Epidaurus.
XXXIII
 417 BC: the democrats in Argos overthrow the oligarchy established by an
alliance with Sparta and rejoin Athens.
The 300 oligarchs are exiled.
An
Athenian fleet blockades Macedonia.
 416 BC: the Athenian genocide & destruction of the neutral Melos. Afterwards
they raid Macedonia while Sparta ravages Argos.
 415 BC: Alcibiades of Athens breaks the Peace of Nicias, beginning Part II of the
Peloponnesian War.
The Athenians vote to begin the Sicilian expedition,
opening a new front in the war. Nicias was strongly opposed to this venture.
The mutilations of the Hermae, of which Alcibiades is suspected, the night before
the fleet sails. The Athenians have a cool reception in Italy. Alcibiades is recalled
to face charges of blasphemy but jumps the reservation and joins Sparta. That
winter they win the battle of Anapus River but have no real gains. Realizing the
truth of their situation they send for reinforcements. Some cities remain neutral
on the island, many side with Syracuse.
 413 BC: The Macedonian king Archelaus transfer the kingdom’s capital form
Aegea to Pella.
 411 BC: death of Greek philosopher Protagras [born: 480 BC]. This year also say
the aristocratic revolt in Athens [among the leaders was Plato’s uncle Critias] and
the Constitution of the 400.
 410 BC– 406 BC: Athens recovers losses due in part to Alcibiades.
 410 BC: death of Greek Geometer Hippocrates of Chios [born: 470 BC].
XXXIV
 410 BC – 310 BC: The Men of the Great Assembly in Jerusalem. Their work was
begun by Ezra. This body canonized the Hebrew Scriptures, formalized prayer
services and was critical in the accurate transmission of oral Hebraic Traditions.
 406 BC: all Athenian slaves of military age are released as an act of piety to
appeal to the gods. The death of Greek playwright Euripides.
 405 BC: Dionysus I become tyrant of Syracuse bringing peace between Syracuse
and Carthage. The Greek playwright Sophocles dies [born: 495 BC].
 404 BC – 371 BC: Spartan Hegemony in Greece
 404 BC: Facing starvation from the grain embargo of the Spartan general
Lysander Athens surrenders. The new-built city walls are removed, Athens
looses all overseas possessions and her navy. Corinth and Thebes want the city
razed and the people enslaved by Lysander refuses electing to act with clemency.
This begins the reign of the ‘Thirty Tyrants’ who were overthrown in a
democratic revolt the next year.
 404 BC: Atraxerxes II [404 – 358] becomes king of Persia.
 403 BC: Lysias’ oration ‘Against Eratosthenes.’
 400 BC: Andocides’ trial and oration ‘On the Mysteries.’
 401 BC – 399 BC: the Ten Thousand: The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in 401 BC
between Cyrus the Younger and his elder brother Arsaces, who had seized the
Persian throne as Artaxerxes II in 404 BC. Cyrus gathered an army of Greek
mercenaries [whom he actively misled as to the destination, distances and nature
of the endeavor] consisting of 10,400 hoplites and 2,500 peltasts, under the
XXXV
Spartan general Clearchus, and met Artaxerxes at Cunaxa on the left bank of the
Euphrates River, 70 kilometers North of Babylon. Artaxerxes had about 200
scythed chariots compared to about 20 available to Cyrus. Something like this
same ratio probably applies to the ratio of non-Greek troops available to each
side. Artaxerxes certainly enjoyed superiority in cavalry. The Hellenes won the
battle, but, as Cyrus died in the battle it was a political and strategic victory for
Arsaces. On Cyrus’s death Clearchus assumed the chief command and
conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his fellow-generals
by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Atraxerxes and executed. Stranded deep
in enemy territory, with most of their generals dead, Xenophon played an
instrumental role in encouraging the "Ten Thousand" Greek army to march north
to the Black Sea in an epic fighting retreat.
 400 BC: Etruscans routed by Celts from Gaul. Death of the historian Thucydides
[born: 460 BC].
 399 BC: Trial and suicide of philosopher Socrates [born: 470 BC] on the orders of
the Athenian state.
The Macedonian king Archelaus is assassinate and
succeeded by Amyntas II. One of his three sons was Philip, who in his youth
had been a hostage to Thebes as security for the peace of Pelopidas.
 396 BC – 394 BC: the Spartan king Agesilaus leads a campaign in Asia Minor to
aid the Greek cities there.
 395 BC -387 BC: The Corinthian War. Thebes, Argos, Corinth and Athens take on
Sparta. Athens rebuilds the long walls.
XXXVI
 390 BC: Roman defeat by the Gauls at the battle of Allia [July 16]. The Celts
occupy and burn the city that same year.
 384 BC: formation of the Chalcidian League.
 387 BC: death of Greek playwright Aristophanes [born: 445 BC]. The ‘Peace of
Antalcidas:’ this year saw the disgrace of Sparta using Persian influence to end
the Corinthian War and assure her hegemony.
 386 BC: Plato founds the Academy in an Athenian olive grove.
 382 BC: Sparta seizes Thebes and secures a garrison within the city to back the
oligarchy.
 380 BC: Isocrates’ ‘Panegyricus.’
 378 BC: Thebes liberated with the assistance of Athens. Athens this year also
formed the Second Athenian League.
 371 BC – 362 BC: Theban Hegemony in Greece

371 BC: Thebans, led by General Epaminondas, defeat Sparta at battle of Leuctra.
Half of all adult Spartan males are killed. As a result Spartan power is broken.
This is the beginning of Theban supremacy. The battle opened with the Spartan's
mercenary peltasts (slingers, javilineers and/or skirmishers) attacking and driving back
the Boeotian camp followers and others who were reluctant to fight. There followed a
cavalry engagement, in which the Thebans drove their enemies off the field. Initially, the
Spartan infantry were sent into disarray when their retreating cavalry hopelessly
disrupted Cleombrotus's attempt to outflank the Theban phalanx, and were themselves
caught on their flank by Pelopidas and the Sacred Band of Thebes. The decisive issue was
then fought out between the Theban and Spartan foot. The normal practice of the
Spartans (and, indeed, the Greeks generally) was to establish their heavily armed
infantry in a solid mass, or phalanx, some eight to twelve men deep. This was considered
to allow for the best balance between depth (the pushing power it provided) and width
(i.e., area of coverage of the phalanx's front battle line). The infantry would advance
together so that the attack flowed unbroken against their enemy. In order to combat the
XXXVII
phalanx's infamous right-hand drift, Greek commanders traditionally placed their most
experienced, highly regarded and, generally, deadliest troops on the right wing. By
contrast, the shakiest and/or least influential troops were often placed on the left wing. In
a major break with tradition, Epaminondas massed his cavalry and a fifty-deep column
of Theban infantry on his left wing, and sent forward this body against the Spartan right.
His shallower and weaker center and right wing columns were drawn up so that they
were progressively further to the right and rear of the proceeding column, in the socalled Echelon formation. The foot-soldiers engaged, and the Spartans' twelve-deep
formation on their right wing could not sustain the heavy impact of their opponents' 50deep column. A brief pushing match ensued, wherein the Spartans attempted to hold
back the gigantic mass of the Thebans and the Sacred Band until they were literally run
over by the enormous column. The Spartan right was hurled back with a loss of about
1,000 men, of whom 400 were Spartan citizens, including the king Cleombrotus I. By the
time the Theban center and right columns advanced to the point of engaging the enemy,
the Spartan right had been devastated. Seeing their right wing beaten, the rest of the
Peloponnesians, who were essentially unwilling participants, retired and left the enemy
in possession of the field. The arrival of a Thessalian army under Jason of Pherae
persuaded a relieving Spartan force under Archidamus not to heap folly on folly and to
withdraw instead, while the Thebans were persuaded not to continue the attack on the
surviving Spartans.
 369 BC: Epaminondas liberates the helots, mainly subjugated Messenians [who
boasted they would eat the Spartans raw] from Spartan rule. Epaminondas next
proceeded to re-establish the Messenian state. The Messenians had formerly lived
under a dynasty of their own kings; but for the last three centuries their land had been in
the possession of the Lacedaemonians, and they had been fugitives upon the face of the
earth. The restoration of these exiles, dispersed in various Hellenic colonies, to their
former rights, would plant a bitterly hostile neighbour on the very borders of Laconia.
Epaminondas accordingly opened communications with them, and numbers of them
flocked to his standard during his march into Peloponnesus. He now founded the town
of Messene. Its citadel was placed on the summit of Mount Ithome, which had three
centuries before been so bravely defended by the Messenians against the Spartans. The
strength of its fortifications was long afterwards a subject of admiration. The territory
attached to the new city extended southwards to the Messenian gulf, and northwards to
the borders of Arcadia, comprising some of the most fertile land in Peloponnesus.
 368 BC: Pelopidas conducted a Theban force into Thessaly and Macedonia. In
Thessaly he compelled Alexander, who, by the murder of his two brothers, had
become despot of Pherae and Tagus of Thessaly, to relinquish his designs against
the independence of Larissa and other Thessalian cities, and to solicit peace. In
Macedonia he formed an alliance with the regent Ptolemy: and amongst the
hostages given for the observance of this treaty was the youthful Philip, son of
XXXVIII
Amyntas, afterwards the celebrated king of Macedon, who remained for some
years at Thebes.
 364 BC: Pelopidas again marches in Thessaly. Orchomenus destroyed by Thebes.
 367 BC: Dionysus II becomes tyrant of Syracuse on the death of his father.
 362 BC – [346 BC] 338 BC: An Athenian flicker and Twilight of the Classical Greeks
 362 BC: Epaminondas killed at battle of Mantinea, the end of the brief Theban
hegemony.
 361 BC: the lame Spartan king Agesilaus goes with a mercenary force of Spartans
to Egypt to aid Tachos against the Persians. He dies at age 80, and fulfilled a
prophecy that “a lame king” would see the end of Spartan glory. By way of
motto he said: “If I have done any noble action, that is a sufficient memorial; if I
have done nothing noble, all the statues in the world will not preserve my
memory.” (In Greek: Εἰ γὰρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτο μνημεῖον ἐστίν; εἰ δὲ
μηδὲν, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες.)
 360 BC: Scopae
 359 BC - 336 BC: Philip II begins to establish Macedonian hegemony over the
Greeks.
 358 BC: Atraxerxes III [358 – 338] begins rule. The Macedonians have their first
victory of the Illyrians. They then capture the city of Amphipolis after a siege.
Afterwards Philip marches to Pydna, which surrendered directly.
 356 BC: the Temple of Artemes was rebuilt at Ephesus.
XXXIX
 357 BC: In Persia Haman formulates his plan for genocide against the Jews.
When the decree is issued, Mordecai, leader of the Jewish community, calls for
three days of fasting and repentance. This same year Haman’s plot is foiled and
he is hanged at the request of Queen Esther.
 357 BC – 355 BC: disintegration of the Athenian League as Rhodes, Kos, Chios
and Byzantium rebel. In 355 BC Athens is defeated and her allies receive full
autonomy.
 356 BC: A decree is issued allowing the Jews to defend themselves. After two
days of riots through the empire the Jews are victorious. Haman’s ten sons
hanged. This is the origin of the Jewish holiday Purim.
 356 BC -346 BC: The Third Sacred War; fought between the forces of Thebes and
Phocis for control of Delphi. Unlike the Second Sacred War it was longer and a
lot more bitter and violent. By the year 347 BC the temple treasures were starting
to run out and Phalaecus could no long afford to keep his army to a high
standard. Nine years had passed since the start of the war and both sides were
exhausted; Phillip announced that he would end the war in the following year,
346 BC. Despite Athenian efforts to keep Phillip out by using the peace of
Philocrates he came against no military opposition. Phalaecus was said to have
done a secret deal with Macedon. Phillip brought the Third Scared war to a close
in 346 BC as he had said. In reality Phillip had also settled Greece, as the Golden
Age of Greek history came to close and the Macedonians began to take control.
In 356 BC Philip divided the Olynthians from Athens by returning to them the
city of Potidaea.
XL
 353 BC: Philip takes Methone. Demosthenes’ orations ‘For Megalpolis’ & ‘On the
Liberty of Rhodes.’
 351 BC: Demosthenes’ famous first Philippic oration.
 350 BC: Philip having captured a town in Chalcidice, Olynthus began to tremble
for her own safety, and sent envoys to Athens to crave assistance. Olynthus was
still at the head of thirty-two Greek towns, and the confederacy was a sort of
counterpoise to the power of Philip. It was on this occasion that Demosthenes
delivered his three Olynthaic orations, in which he warmly advocated an alliance
with Olynthus. Demosthenes was opposed by a strong party, with which
Phocion commonly acted. Phocion is one of the most singular and original
characters in Grecian history. He viewed the multitude and their affairs with a
scorn which he was at no pains to disguise; receiving their anger with
indifference, and their praises with contempt. His known probity also gave him
weight with the assembly. He was the only statesman of whom Demosthenes
stood in awe; who was accustomed to say, when Phocion rose, "Here comes the
pruner of my periods.”
 347 BC: death of first Greek systematic philosopher Plato [born: 427 BC].
Olynthus itself was taken. The whole of the Chalcidian peninsula thus became a
Macedonian province. The sword now hangs directly over Athens. After a lack
of success with Thebes Athens makes peace with Philip who that summer
marches through the pass of Thermopylae into Phocis.
 346 BC: The Peace of Philocrates. Philip destroys Phocis and presides over the
Pythian Games at Delphi. Isocrates’ ‘Philip’ & Demosthenes’ ‘On the Peace.’
XLI
 344 BC – 338 BC: Timoleon arrives in Sicily, ends the tyrannies and defeats the
Carthaginians at the Battle of Crimius [341]; revival of Greek Sicily.
Demosthenes’ second Philippic oration.
 343 BC – 341 BC: The First Samnite War of the Romans.
 342 BC Philip organizes his army and constructs a major naval force for his
planned attack up on the Persian Empire. Diopeithes sent to the Chersonese.
Demosthenes’ delivers his third Philippic oration as well as ‘On the Chersonese.’
 340 BC – 338 BC: The Latin War; this ensures Roman dominance of the Latins
and dissolution of the Latin League. Praxitles. Portrait sculpture begins.
 339 BC: in Rome the Publian Laws are passed.
 338 BC: Philip of Macedon seizes the town of Elatea. His designs on Attic and
Boeotia are clear to all. Eighteen-year-old Alexander III [soon to become ‘the
Great’] leads a bold cavalry at battle of Chaeronea near the frontier of Phocis to
defeat Thebes and Athens.
Here ends Greek liberty. Later that year a pan-
Hellenic congress was convened at Corinth. It was here Philip was declared
generalissimo of the Greeks to lead the war against the Mede.
 338 BC: Rome defeats the Latin League.
 338 BC: Phillip founds the League of Corinth and thus ends Poleis' autonomy.
Plans for a crusade of revenge against the Persian Empire.
 336 BC: Aristotle founds the Lyceum in Athens. In Persia Darius III [336 – 330] is
placed upon the throne, nephew of Atraxerxes, after the actual heir was
poisoned. He is the last of the Achaemenid monarchs. In the spring Philip sends
XLII
a small military expedition into Asia Minor to engage in the Greek cities in the
upcoming Crusade.
Later in the year he is assassinated at his daughter’s
wedding at Aegea.
 335 BC -263 BC: Zeno of Citium establishes Stoic school. In 335 BC Alexander the
Great engages the Thracians and Illyrians to secure the northern boarder of
Macedon.
 334 BC: In the spring Alexander the Great crosses the Hellespont into Asia.
Approaching the cast near the sacred ruins of Ilium he is the first to leap into the
shallow water off shore and casting his spear into the sand say, “I claim all Asia
as mine.” Persian general Memnon tries scorched-earth tactics, but Alexander the
Great of Macedon beats Memnon at battle of Granicus River
 333 BC: Alexander Magnus defeats Persian main forces under Darius III at battle
of Issus. He also destroys the Persian naval bases.
 332 BC – 331 BC: Early in the year Alexander lays siege to the island city Tyre,
building a land-bridge to storm the city. Alexander the Great welcomed as
liberator in Egypt.

331 BC: In the spring he makes a pilgrimage to the oasis oracle of Amon-Ra, is
proclaimed a son of Zeus. Alexander the Great defeats Darius III on October 1st at
the Battle of Gaugamela. This begins the rise of Western hegemony. He later
enters Babylon. *** The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield.
Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from an allied Scythian tribe.
Darius also deployed scythed chariots for which he had prepared cleared terrain in front of his
troops. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots, although these seemingly
played no role in the battle. Before the battle, Darius ordered bushes and vegetation removed from
the battlefield, to maximize the chariots' effectiveness. Darius placed himself in the center with his
best infantry as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the
Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries, and the Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed the
Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian Cavalry and his Mardian
archers. On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians,
Dahae cavalry, Arachrosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry, and
XLIII
Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the
right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian,
Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian, and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians
were stationed in front of the other cavalry units, and led the attack. The Albanian and Sacesinian
cavalry were sent around to flank the Macedonian left. The Macedonians were divided into two,
with the right side of the army falling under the direct command of Alexander, and the left to
Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it were the Paionian, and
Macedonian light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, with the veterans
being stationed on the flank of the right, and the rest being put in front of the Agrians and
Macedonian archers which were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left
with the Thessalian, Greek mercenary, and Thracian cavalry units. There they were to pull off a
holding maneuver while Alexander landed the decisive blow from the right. On the right-center of
the formation were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them was a group of Thessalian cavalry under
Phillip, and Achaian mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From
there came the phalanx, which was placed into a double-line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry,
with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Macedonians would be
flanked by the Persians. The second line were given orders to deal with any flanking units should
the situation arise. This second line consisted of mostly mercenaries. During the battle Alexander
used an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times throughout history. His plan
was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks. The purpose of this was to
create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the
center. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering, and the Great King himself to act
first. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degree angles to lure the
Persian cavalry to attack. Alexander forced Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the
prepared ground) though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at
Issus against a similar formation. In the end Darius's hand was forced, and he attacked. Darius
now launched his chariots, some of which were intercepted by the Agrianians. It is said that the
Macedonian army had trained for a new tactic to counter these devastating chariots if they ran into
their ranks. The first lines would step aside, opening a gap. The horse would refuse to run into the
lances of the front ranks, and enter the "mouse trap", only to be stopped by the lances of the rear
ranks. The charioteers could then be killed at leisure. The chariots were rendered useless. As the
Persians moved farther and farther to the Macedonian flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly
filtered in his rear-guard. Alexander disengaged his Companions, and prepared for the decisive
attack on the Persians. Leading the way, he formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading
the charge. Behind them was the guards brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could
withdraw from the battle. These were follow-up light troops. Alexander took most of his cavalry
and moved parallel to Darius's front lines, heading off of the prepared battlefield. In doing so,
Darius ordered his cavalry in the front lines to block Alexander's force. Unbeknownst to Darius,
Alexander hid a force of peltasts (light infantry armed with slings, javelins, and shortbows) behind
his horsemen and Alexander slowly sent his force into an angle, heading toward the Persian host,
until finally a gap opened between Bessus's left and Darius's center and Alexander sent in his
cavalry force to drive down the gap in the Persian line. At the same time, the peltasts engaged the
cavalry, so as to keep them from riding back to engage Alexander's charging cavalry. This large
wedge then smashed right into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius's royal guard, and
the Greek mercenaries. Bessus on the left, now cut off from Darius, and fearing he himself would
be struck with this wedge, began to pull back his forces. Darius was in danger of himself being cut
off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army
following him. A less common view is that Darius's army was already broken when Darius ran,
and is supported by an astronomical diary from Babylon written within days of the
battle.Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate
XLIV
messages from Parmenion (an event which would later be used by Callisthenes and others to
discredit Parmenion) on the left. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius, but
losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces. In the
end, he made the decision to help Parmenion, and follow Darius later. While holding on the left, a
gap had also opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian line. The Persian and
Indian cavalry units stationed in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the
phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued on towards the camp to loot. They also
tried to rescue Queen Mother Sisygambis but she refused to go with them. On their way back, the
Indians slew over 60 of the Companion cavalry. Meanwhile, as the center and Darius broke,
Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with
Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged
forward at their fleeing enemy. While many modern sources say that Darius fled at the mere sight
of Alexander, most contempory sources say that the Persian Army deserted Darius as opposed to
vice versa. After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and
his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up. As at Issus, substantial amounts of
loot were gained following the battle, with 4,000 talents captured, as well as the King's personal
chariot and bow. The war elephants were also captured. Darius had managed to escape the battle
with a small core of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus managed to
catch up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries.
At this point, the Persian Empire was divided into two halves – East and West. Alexander would
go on to proclaim himself Great King. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of
his army. He planned to head further East, and raise another army to face Alexander while he and
the Macedonians headed to Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his Eastern
satrapies asking them to remain loyal. The satrapies, however, had other intentions. Bessus
murdered Darius, then he and the entire Persian Empire (or what was left of it) pronounced fealty
to Alexander.
 330 BC: Alexander conquers Persepolis, the Persian capital. On the prompting of
an Athenian prostitute it is burned, thus paying the debt for the burning of the
Acropolis in Athens and other Greek temples. Later that year is the trial and
execution of Philotas on charges of conspiracy against Alexander. Not long after
this he killed the older officer Cleitus in a drunken rage during an argument
about Philip II.
In Greece the Spartans attempted a revolt against the
Macedonians. They met with some success but were slaughtered at Megalopolis.
This same year the pro-Macedonian party in Athens brought charges against the
anti-Macedonian orator Demosthenes.
This has been immortalized by the
memorable and still extant speeches of Aeschines [leader of the pro-Macedonian
party] 'Against Ctesiphon' and of Demosthenes 'On the Crown.' Aeschines, who
XLV
did not obtain a fifth part of the votes, and consequently became himself liable to
a penalty, was so chagrined at his defeat that he retired to Rhodes.
 330 BC – 329 BC: Alexander pursues Bessus, leader of Persian resistance, through
modern Afghanistan. He is finally is surrender to him. Alexander has his ears
and nose cut off, send him to the capital to be impaled.
 325 BC: death of Diogenes of Sinope [born: 206 BC], Cynic philosopher &
aesthetic.
 326 – 304 BC: The Second [Great] Samnite War: During this conflict Rome suffers
one of her greatest defeats when a consul army under T. Veturius and Sp.
Postumis are defeated and humiliated at the Caudine Forks. At 300 BC Roman
power was established in central Italy.
 326 BC: Alexander the Great begins the invasion of India.
The Battle of
Hydaspes in Punjab.
 325 BC: ‘Proconsulships’ invented to extend the terms of consuls serving in the
field
 324/325 BC: Harpalus takes refuge in Athens. Twice charged with embezzlement
and abuse of power of his post in Asia Minor [given him by Alexander] on the
second charge he fled. He was imprisoned by the Athenians after a proposal of
Demosthenes and Phocion, despite Hypereides' opposition, who wanted an
immediate uprising against Alexander. Ecclesia after a proposal of Demosthenes
decided the guarding of Harpalus' money, which were entrusted to a committee
led by Demosthenes himself. When the committee counted the money, they
found 350 talents, although Harpalus had declared that he had 700 talents.
XLVI
Nevertheless, Demosthenes and the other members of the committee decided not
to disclose the deficit. When Harpalus escaped and fled to Crete, the orator faced
a new wave of public uproar. The Areopagus conducted an inquiry and its
findings charged Demosthenes with mishandling 20 talents. In Demosthenes'
trial in Heliaia, Hypereides, who was the main prosecutor, predicated that
Demosthenes admitted having taken the money, but said that he had used it on
the people's behalf and had borrowed it free of interest. The prosecutor rejected
this argument and accused Demosthenes of being bribed by Alexander.
Demosthenes was fined with 50 talents and imprisoned, but after a few days he
escaped by the carelessness or connivance of some citizens and wandered in
Calauria, Aegina and Troezen. It remains still unclear whether the accusations
against him were just or not. In any case, the Athenians soon repealed the
sentence and sent a ship to Aegina to carry Demosthenes back to the port of
Piraeus.
 322 BC: death of Greek philosopher Aristotle [born: 384 BC].
 323 BC: Alexander dies at the age of 33 on June 10 or 11th. His empire split into
Egypt (ruled by Ptolemy I), the Seleucid Empire (Mesopotamia) and Antigonid
empire (Asia Minor and Macedonia).
 323 BC- 282 BC: Euclid publishes Elements of Geometry in Alexandria during
the reign of Ptolemy I. During the same period Perdiccas tried to maintain unity
of Egypt during his regency but was killed.
 323 BC- 322 BC: The Lamian War in which Athens attempted to free herself form
Macedonian rule. The defeat she and her allies suffered secured the hold of
Macedon over the Greeks.
XLVII
 321 BC: Perdiccas [former general of Alexander with his wife Roxana and infant
son Alexander III] marches against Ptolemy in Egypt in a bid to dominate the
formal territory of Alexander. After a disaster in which a great number of his
men drown in the Nile he is murdered in his tent by his top officers. Later that
year generals meet in the Syrian city of Triparadisus to re-divide the empire.
 320 BC: Lysippus
 317 BC – 289 BC: Agathocles tyrant of Syracuse.
 316 BC: Cassander becomes master of Macedon after the fall of Pydna. He
murdered Olympia, the mother of Alexander the Great, and locked his wife and
son in the citadel of Amphipolis.
 315 BC: Ptolemy, Seleucid, Cassander and the governor of Thrace, Lysimachus,
unite to war against the emerging power of Antigonus. In the hollow peace the
follows Roxana and the 16 year old son of Alexander the Great, Alexander III, are
murdered in the citadel of Amphipolis to prevent him inheriting the throne.
This same year was sculpted the Alexander Sarcophagus.
 312 BC: Seleucus captures Babylon and initiates the Seleucid era.
 310 BC: Zeno of Citium founds Stoicism at Athens.
 301 BC: destruction of the power of Antigonus & Demetrius at the Battle of
Ipsus. This ended the struggle for one group to dominate the old territories of
Alexander the Great
 300 BC: Ptolemy I founds the Library of Alexandria.
XLVIII
 300 BC – 100 BC: traditional date for the Goths cross from Scandinavia into
continental Europe. Many modern scholars dispute this origin for the Goths.
 295 BC: the Colossus of Rhodes is erected.
 298 BC – 290 BC: The Third Samnite War
 290 BC: The Babylonian priest Berossus writes his history of Babylonia. The
Tyche of Antioch.
 287 BC: in Rome the Hortensian Laws are passed.
 287 BC: the Roman ‘Struggle of the Orders’ ends; decisions of Plebeian Assembly
becomes binding on all
 285 BC / 247 BC: construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria.
 283 BC: Ptolemy I Soter dies and is succeeded by his son Ptolemy Philadelphus.
 283 BC: [circa] beginning of the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Koine
Greek; the Septuagint.
 281 BC: Antiochus I assumes power after his father Seleucus is assassinated.
Foundation of the Achaean League.
 280 BC –275 BC: Pyrrhus of Epirus crosses into south Italy, ‘Greater Greece,’ to
assist the Greeks against the advance of Roman power. He is defeated.
 279 BC: Invasion of Macedon and Greece by Celtics. Antigonus Gonatus defeats
them and becomes king of Macedon.
XLIX
 275 BC: The inhabitants of Babylon are deported to Seleucia. By 141 BC the city
is in total ruins, fulfilling the prophecy of Isaiah.
 274 BC – 271 BC: First Syrian War between Ptolemy II & Antiochus I.
 272 BC: Surrender of Tarentum; alliance of southern Italian Greek cities with
Rome.
 271 BC: death of Greek thinker Epicurus [born: 341 BC].
 270 BC: death of Greek philosopher Pyrrho [born: 360 BC].
 267 BC – 262BC: the Chremonidean War; Ptolemy II unsuccessfully supports
Greek independence from Macedon.
Antigonus Gonatus enters Athens in
triumph.
 264 BC -241 BC: The First Punic War. In 264 BC the Carthaginians laid siege to
the Roman ally the city of Messana in Sicily.
There had been commercial
competition between Rome and Carthage for Mediterranean traffic for some
time.
 262 BC: Romans capture Greek city of Agrigentum from Carthage in Sicily.
 261 BC: Antiochus II inherits the throne of the Seleucid Kingdom.
 260 BC – 253 BC: Second Syrian War between Ptolemy II & Antiochus II.
Apollonius of Rhodes publishes the Argonautica.
 256 BC: Consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius invade Africa with 300 ships.
Regulus was defeated in 255 BC. What follows is the famous story of his oath.
L
In the same year Asoka, king of Mauryans [262 – 232 BC] proclaims a Buddhist
mission to the Greek World.
 255 BC: the Battle of Panormus is a decisive victory for the Romans.
 250BC: Arsaces establishes a dynasty independent of Seleucid rule in remote
areas of northern Iran.
 246 BC: Ptolemy II succeeds to the kingdom of Egypt while Seleucus II succeeds
to Seleucid kingdom. 246 – 241 BC is the Third Syrian War.
 244 BC: - 241 BC: Agis IV attempts to reform Sparta and is executed.
 240 BC: Livius Andronicus adapts first Greek comedies and tragedies for the
Roman stage. Beginning of high Latin drama as opposed to Mimes and Satyr
Plays.
 239BC: Demetrius II succeeds to Macedonian throne what follows is war
between Macedon and the Achaean & Aetolian Leagues.
 242 BC: The Roman victory at the naval Battle of Aegates Islands [200 ships
under Consul L. Catulus] causes Carthage to sue for peace.
 238 BC: Parthia emerges on the scene.
 237-229 BC: Carthaginian governor of Spain, Hamilcar Barca, grabs land in
Spain. Secures the Ebro Treaty. In 237 Rome occupied Corsica and Sardinia.
 228 BC: Rome establishes protectorate over Illyrian coast.
 227 BC: Cleomenes III reforms Spartan state.
LI
 223 BC: Antiochus III assumes the crown of the Seleucid kingdom.
 221 BC: Philip V made king of Macedon, Ptolemy IV succeeds to kingdom of
Egypt.
 219 BC – 217 BC: The Fourth Syrian War. Egypt is saved from complete defeat
by victory at the naval Battle of Raphia.
 218-202 BC: Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, violates the Ebro Treaty by
crossing that river in Hispania, initiating war against Rome.
 218 BC: Hannibal crosses Alps into Italy. Most of his elephants die.
 217 BC: Hannibal wins at the battle of Lake Trasimene. Meanwhile, Scipio
attacks Spain.

216 BC: the Battle of Cannae; the greatest defeat in Roman history. In the spring of
216 BC, Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the
Apulian plain. He thus placed himself between the Romans and their crucial source of
supply. As Polybius notes, the capture of Cannae "caused great commotion in the Roman
army; for it was not only the loss of the place and the stores in it that distressed them, but
the fact that it commanded the surrounding district". The consuls, resolving to confront
Hannibal, marched southward in search of the Carthaginian general. After two days’
march, they found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River and encamped six miles
away. Ordinarily each of the two Consuls would command their own portion of the
army, but since the two armies were combined into one, the Roman law required them to
alternate their command on a daily basis. It appears that Hannibal had already figured
out that the command of the Roman army alternated, and planned his strategy
accordingly. Reportedly, a Carthaginian officer named Gisgo commented on how much
larger the Roman army was. Hannibal replied, "another thing that has escaped your
notice, Gisgo, is even more amazing — that although there are so many of them, there is
not one among them called Gisgo." Consul Varro, who was in command on the first day,
is presented in our sources as a man of reckless nature and hubris, and was determined
to defeat Hannibal. While the Romans were approaching Cannae, a small portion of
Hannibal's forces ambushed the Roman army. Varro successfully repelled the
Carthaginian attack and continued on his way to Cannae. This victory, though essentially
a mere skirmish with no lasting strategic value, greatly bolstered confidence in the
LII
Roman army, perhaps to overconfidence on Varro's part. Paullus, however, was opposed
to the engagement as it was taking shape. Unlike Varro, he was prudent and cautious,
and he believed it was foolish to fight on open ground, despite the Romans' numerical
strength. This was especially true since Hannibal held the advantage in cavalry (both in
quality and numerical terms). Despite these misgivings, Paullus thought it unwise to
withdraw the army after the initial success, and camped two-thirds of the army east of
the Aufidus River, sending the remainder of his men to fortify a position on the opposite
side. The purpose of this second camp was to cover the foraging parties from the main
camp and harass those of the enemy. The two armies stayed in their respective locations
for two days. During the second of these two days (August 1), Hannibal, well aware that
Varro would be in command the following day, left his camp and offered battle. Paullus,
however, refused. When his request was rejected, Hannibal, recognizing the importance
of the Aufidus' water to the Roman troops, sent his cavalry to the smaller Roman camp to
harass water-bearing soldiers that were found outside the camp fortifications. According
to Polybius, Hannibal's cavalry boldly rode up to the edge of the Roman encampment,
causing havoc and thoroughly disrupting the supply of water to the Roman camp.
Enraged by this foray, Varro assumed command on August 2, marshaled his forces, and
crossed back over the Aufidus to do battle. The combined forces of the two consuls
totaled 75,000 infantry, 2,400 Roman cavalry and 4,000 allied horse (involved in the actual
battle) and, in the two fortified camps, 2,600 heavily-armed men, 7,400 lightly-armed
men (a total of 10,000), so that the total strength the Romans brought to the field
amounted to approximately 86,400 men. Opposing them was a Carthaginian army
composed of roughly 40,000 heavy infantry, 6,000 light infantry, and 8,000 cavalry in the
battle itself, irrespective of detachments. The Carthaginian army was built around a core
of around 8,000 Carthaginian hoplites with Roman armor but fighting in the Macedonian
phalanx. There were another 8,000 Iberian/Celt-Iberian heavy infantry in the main battle
line. The rest of Hannibal's troops were Celtic warriors from the Po Valley. These soldiers
used their superior size and strength to fight on even terms with the more disciplined
Roman legions. The conventional deployment for armies of the time was to place
infantry in the center and deploy the cavalry in two flanking "wings". The Romans
followed this convention fairly closely, but chose extra depth by stacking their cohorts,
rather than breadth for their infantry, hoping to use this concentration of forces to
quickly break through the center of Hannibal's line. Varro knew how the Roman infantry
had managed to penetrate Hannibal's center during the Battle of the Trebia, and he
planned to recreate this on an even greater scale. The principes were stationed
immediately behind the hastati, ready to push forward at first contact to ensure the
Romans presented a unified front. As Polybius wrote, "the maniples were nearer each
other, or the intervals were decreased… and the maniples showed more depth than
front". Even though they outnumbered the Carthaginians, this depth-oriented
deployment meant that the Roman lines had a front of roughly equal size to their
numerically inferior opponents. To Varro, Hannibal seemed to have little room to
manoeuver and no means of retreat as he was deployed with the Aufidus River to his
LIII
rear. Varro believed that when pressed hard by the Romans' superior numbers, the
Carthaginians would fall back onto the river and, with no room to manoeuver, would be
cut down in panic. Bearing in mind that Hannibal's two previous victories had been
largely decided by his trickery and ruse, Varro had sought an open battlefield. The field
at Cannae was indeed clear, with no possibility of hidden troops being brought to bear as
an ambush. Hannibal, on the other hand, had deployed his forces based on the particular
fighting qualities of each unit, taking into consideration both their strengths and
weaknesses in devising his strategy. He placed his Iberians, Gauls and Celtiberians in the
middle, alternating the ethnic composition across the front line. Hannibal's infantry from
Punic Africa was positioned on the wings at the very edge of his infantry line. It is a
common misconception that Hannibal's African troops carried pikes—a theory put
forward by historian Peter Connolly. The Libyan troops in fact carried spears "shorter
than the Roman Triarii". Their advantage was not that they had pikes, it was that these
infantry were expertly battle-hardened, remained cohesive, and attacked the Roman
flanks. Hasdrubal led the Iberian and Celtiberian cavalry on the left (south near the
Aufidus River) of the Carthaginian army. Hasdrubal was given about 6,500 cavalry, and
Hanno had 3,500 Numidians on the right. Hasdrubal's force was able to quickly destroy
the Roman cavalry (on the south), pass the Roman's infantry rear, and reach the Roman
allied cavalry while they were engaged with Hanno's Numidians. The combined cavalry
forces of Hasdrubal and Hanno destroyed the Roman's allied cavalry and attacked the
Roman infantry from the rear. Hannibal intended that his cavalry, comprising mainly
medium Hispanic cavalry and Numidian light horse, and positioned on the flanks, defeat
the weaker Roman cavalry and swing around to attack the Roman infantry from the rear
as it pressed upon Hannibal's weakened center. His veteran African troops would then
press in from the flanks at the crucial moment, and encircle the overextended Roman
army. Hannibal was unconcerned about his position against the Aufidus River; in fact, it
played a major factor in his strategy. By anchoring his army on the river, Hannibal
prevented one of his flanks from being overlapped by the larger, more numerous
Romans. The Romans were in front of the hill leading to Cannae and hemmed in on their
right flank by the Aufidus River, so that their left flank was the only viable means of
retreat. In addition, the Carthaginian forces had manoeuvered so that the Romans would
face east. Not only would the morning sunlight shine on the Romans, but the
southeasterly winds would blow sand and dust into their faces as they approached the
battlefield. Hannibal's unique deployment of his army, based on his perception and
understanding of the capabilities of his troops, was decisive. As the armies advanced on
one another, Hannibal gradually extended the center of his line, as Polybius describes:
"After thus drawing up his whole army in a straight line, he took the central companies
of Hispanics and Celts and advanced with them, keeping the rest of them in contact with
these companies, but gradually falling off, so as to produce a crescent-shaped formation,
the line of the flanking companies growing thinner as it was prolonged, his object being
to employ the Africans as a reserve force and to begin the action with the Hispanics and
Celts." Polybius describes the weak Carthaginian center as deployed in a crescent,
LIV
curving out toward the Romans in the middle with the African troops on their flanks in
echelon formation. It is believed that the purpose of this formation was to break the
forward momentum of the Roman infantry, and delay its advance before other
developments allowed Hannibal to deploy his African infantry most effectively.
However, some historians have called this account fanciful, and claim that it represents
either the natural curvature that occurs when a broad front of infantry marches forward,
or the bending back of the Carthaginian center from the shock action of meeting the
heavily massed Roman center.. When the battle was joined, the cavalry engaged in a
fierce exchange on the flanks. Polybius describes the scene, writing that "When the
Hispanic and Celtic horses on the left wing came into collision with the Roman cavalry,
the struggle that ensued was truly barbaric." Here, the Carthaginian cavalry quickly
overpowered the inferior Romans on the right flank and routed them. A portion of the
Carthaginian cavalry then detached itself from the Carthaginian left flank and made a
wide circling pivot to the Roman right-flank, where it fell upon the rear of the Roman
cavalry. The Roman cavalry was immediately dispersed as the Carthaginians fell upon
them and began "cutting them down mercilessly". While the Carthaginians were in the
process of defeating the Roman cavalry, the mass of infantry on both sides advanced
towards each other in the center of the field. As the Romans advanced, the wind from the
East blew dust in their faces and obscured their vision. While the wind itself was not a
major factor, the dust that both armies created would have been potentially debilitating
to sight. This, combined with the lack of proper hydration due to Hannibal's attack on the
Roman encampment during the previous day, would have affected the individual
performance of the Roman troops. Hannibal stood with his men in the weak center and
held them to a controlled retreat. The crescent of Hispanic and Gallic troops buckled
inwards as they gradually withdrew. Knowing the superiority of the Roman infantry,
Hannibal had instructed his infantry to withdraw deliberately, thus creating an even
tighter semicircle around the attacking Roman forces. By doing so, he had turned the
strength of the Roman infantry into a weakness. Furthermore, while the front ranks were
gradually advancing forward, the bulk of the Roman troops began to lose their cohesion,
as they began crowding themselves into the growing gap. Soon they were so compact
together that they had little space to wield their weapons. In passing so far forward in
their desire to destroy the retreating and collapsing line of Hispanic and Gallic troops,
the Romans had ignored the African troops that stood uncommitted on the projecting
ends of this now reversed-crescent. This also gave the Carthaginian cavalry time to drive
the Roman cavalry off on both flanks and attack the Roman center in the rear. The Roman
infantry, now stripped of both its flanks, formed a wedge that drove deeper and deeper
into the Carthaginian semicircle, driving itself into an alley that was formed by the
African Infantry stationed at the echelons. At this decisive point, Hannibal ordered his
African Infantry to turn inwards and advance against the Roman flanks, creating an
encirclement of the Roman infantry in the earliest example of the pincer movement.
When the Carthaginian cavalry attacked the Romans in the rear, and the African flanking
echelons had assailed them on their right and left, the advance of the Roman infantry
LV
was brought to an abrupt halt. The trapped Romans were enclosed in a pocket with no
means of escape. The Carthaginians created a wall and began destroying the entrapped
Romans. Polybius claims that, "as their outer ranks were continually cut down, and the
survivors forced to pull back and huddle together, they were finally all killed where they
stood. "Recognizing that his ploy had resulted in near-total victory and still needing to
consolidate his gains and take only those few prisoners who would be willing to
genuinely defect, Hannibal ordered his men to speedily cut the hamstrings of surviving
enemies and move onto the next available Roman, and then later in the day — when
there was no more able-bodied resistance — to butcher the lamed Romans at their
leisure. As Livy describes, "So many thousands of Romans were lying […] Some, whom
their wounds, pinched by the morning cold, had roused, as they were rising up, covered
with blood, from the midst of the heaps of slain, were overpowered by the enemy. Some
were found with their heads plunged into the earth, which they had excavated; having
thus, as it appeared, made pits for themselves, and having suffocated themselves."
Nearly six hundred legionnaires were slaughtered each minute until darkness brought
an end to the bloodletting. Only 14,000 Roman troops managed to escape (most of whom
had cut their way through to the nearby town of Canusium). At the end of the day, out of
the original force of 87,000 Roman troops, only about one out of every six men was still
alive. Although the true figure will probably never be known, Livy and Polybius
variously claim that 50,000-70,000 Romans died with about 3,000–4,500 taken prisoner.
Among the dead were Lucius Aemilius Paullus himself, as well two consuls for the
preceding year, two quaestors, twenty-nine out of the forty-eight military tribunes, and
an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate was comprised of no
more than 300 men, this constituted 25–30% of the governing body). Another 8,000 from
the two Roman camps and the neighboring villages surrendered on the following day
(after further resistance cost even more fatalities - more or less 2,000). In all, perhaps
more than 75,000 Romans of the original force of 87,000 were dead or captured —
totaling more than 85% of the entire army. In the battle itself only, perhaps more of 95%
of the Romans and allies were killed or captured. More Romans were lost at Cannae than
in any other battle except the Battle of Arausio, and Cannae is second only to the Battle of
the Teutoburg Forest when looking at the percentage of Romans killed. For their part, the
Carthaginians suffered 16,700 casualties (with the Celtiberians and Iberians accounting
for the majority). The fatalities for the Carthaginians amounted to 6,000 men, of whom
4,000 were Celtiberians, 1,500 Iberians and Africans, and the remainder cavalry. The total
casualty figure of the battle, therefore, exceeds 80,000 men. At the time when Cannae was
fought, it was probably the second most costly battle in history, behind only the Battle of
Plataea, even if at Plateae the bulk of the casualties was made in the rout of the Persian's
army after the battle and not necessarily in the battlefield itself. Until the Mongol
invasions, ~1500 years later, it was ranked in the ten most costly battles in human history,
and even in modern times the death toll remains in the fifty most lethal battles in world
history.
LVI
 215 BC: The revolt of Capua and other towns under Roman rule in favor of
Hannibal. Philip V of Macedon allies with Carthage.
 215-205 BC: the First Macedonian War between Rome and Macedon
 212 BC – 205 BC: Antiochus III campaigning in the east fails to re-conquer
Parthia. In 212 BC the scientist and philosopher Archimedes of Syracuse [born:
287 BC] dies.
 211 BC: Roman alliance with the Aetolian League.
 207 BC: The Battle of Metaurus is the decisive victory for Rome in Italy. Consul
Nero defeats Hasdrubal.
 206 BC – 185 BC: Revolt and independence of Upper Egypt.
 204 BC: Ptolemy V succeeds in Egypt.
 204 BC: Scipio (Africanus) attacks Carthage, forces Hannibal to withdraw from
Italy. Hannibal had won every victory, but lost the war.
 204 BC – 169 BC: Ennius active as teacher and translator in Rome.
His
translation of Homer’s The Odyssey is the beginning of Latin Literature.
 202 BC: Scipio defeats Hannibal at the battle of Zama [October 23], crushes
Carthage. From 202 to 191 Rome takes Cisalpine Gaul.
 200 BC – 197 BC: The Second Macedonian War with Rome. Around this time
several famous sculptures were completed: Pergamum statutes of the Gauls,
Great Altar of Zeus in Pergamum, Venus de Milo & Victory of Samothrace.
LVII
 197 BC: Flaminius defeats Philip V of Macedonia at battle of Cynoscephalae,
winning Second Macedonian War
 196 BC: Rome declares the freedom of the Greeks at the Isthmus of Corinth.
 194 BC: First Roman celebration of the Ludi Megalenes in honor of the Magna
Mater, whose worship was imported form Asia at this juncture. Death of Greek
astronomer Eratosthenes [born: 276 BC]. Also, Rome evacuates Greece.
 192 BC – 188 BC: Syrian War between Rome and Antiochus.
 195 BC – 179 BC: The Spanish War; a revolt in Hither Spain was initially put
down in a brutal manner by Cato. This provoked a series of violent reactions
ended by diplomacy of Gracchus in 179 BC.
 187 BC: Antiochus III dies.
 186 BC: Senate bans Bacchic Rites.
 184BC: Death of Roman playwright Titus Maccius Plautus [born: 254BC].
 179 BC: Philip V dies and is followed by his son Perseus. In Rome that year the
Basilica Aemilia and Aemilian Bridge were built.
 175 BC: Antiochus IV Epiphanes succeeds to rule of Seleucid kingdom.
 175 BC – 135 BC: The Maccabee revolt in Judaea against the assimilationist
policies of the Seleucids.
 175 BC– 125BC: Scythians dislodges by Gushan and Hanshu tribes before the
advancing Hun migrations.
LVIII
 177 BC – 175 BC: Romans’ Sardinian and Istrian Wars
 171 BC -167 BC: Third Macedonian War. Aemilius Paullus brings home so much
booty that Rome abolishes some taxes.
 172 BC: Egypt is rocked by a religious scandal when it is revealed that pilgrims
to Thebes animal cults had been cheated by unscrupulous priest substituting
other object for the cult mummies of hawks.
 171BC: Scythian-Parni nomads who have settled in Parthia and built a small
kingdom rise to power under Mithridates the Great 171 - 138 BC]. This is the
origins of the later Parthia kingdom.
 167 BC: Romans bring the kingdom of Macedonia to an end at the Battle of
Pydna. The kingdom is divided into four republics allied to Rome. Rome orders
Antiochus IV out of Egypt and declares Delos a ‘free port.’
In Judea the
Maccabean revolt begins in resistance to Seleucid policy of forced Hellenization
of the population and attacks of Judaism.
 164 BC: Death of Antiochus IV, lots of people breathe a sigh of relief.
 159 BC: Death of Roman playwright Publius Terentius Afer aka ‘Terence’ [born:
195 BC].
 155 BC: the Head of the Academy in Athens, Carneades, arrives in Rome on
embassy and introduces the Romans to philosophy.
 150 BC: Stoa of Attalus, Athens
 149 BC: Publication of Origins [a history of Rome] by Cato.
LIX
 149 BC – 146 BC: The Third Punic War. In 151 BC, the Carthaginian debt to Rome
was fully repaid, meaning that, in Hellenic eyes, the treaty was now expired,
though not so according to the Romans, who instead viewed the treaty as a
permanent declaration of Carthaginian subordinance to Rome akin to the Roman
treaties with its Italian allies. Numidia launched another border raid on
Carthaginian soil, besieging a town, and Carthage launched a large military
expedition (25,000 soldiers) to repel the Numidian invaders. As a result,
Carthage suffered a humiliating military defeat and was charged with another
fifty-year debt to Numidia. Immediately thereafter, however, Rome showed
displeasure with Carthage’s decision to wage war against its neighbor without
Roman consent, and told Carthage that in order to avoid a war it had to “satisfy
the Roman People.” The Roman Senate then began gathering an army. After
Utica defected to Rome in 149 BC, Rome declared war against Carthage. The
Carthaginians made a series of attempts to negotiate with Rome, and received a
promise that if three hundred children of well-born Carthaginians were sent as
hostages to Rome the Carthaginians would keep the rights to their land and selfgovernance. Even after this was done, however, the Romans landed an army at
Utica where the consuls demanded that Carthage hand over all weapons and
armor. After those had been handed over, Rome additionally demanded that the
Carthaginians move at least ten miles inland, while Carthage itself was to be
burned. When the Carthaginians learned of this they abandoned negotiations
and the city was immediately besieged, beginning the Third Punic War. The
Carthaginians endured the siege starting c.149 BC to the spring of 146 BC, when
Scipio Aemilianus took the city by storm.
LX
 148 BC: Fourth Macedonian War / War against Achaean League; Macedon
becomes a Roman province.
 146 BC: Romans destroy Corinth.
 142 BC: Independence of the Jews; the Holy Temple is cleansed and the miracle
of Hanukkah occurs.
 141 BC: Parthians attack Babylon.
 137 BC: a stinging defeat for the Roman military at Numantia in Hispaniae.
 134 BC: John Hyrcanus I [reigned 134 – 104 BC] grandson of Judah Maccabee and
first Hashomean ruler of independent Judaea.
 133 BC: Tiberius Gracchus elected Tribune & initiates the first land reform in
human history the lex Sempronia agraria to resolve social crisis stemming form
latifundia. He was assassinated in the Forum by members of the senate who
opposed his reforms. This marks the beginning of the popular power of the Plebs
and the ‘Roman Revolution’ that would only terminate with Augustus. In 133
BC Attalus III of Pergamum bequeaths his kingdom to Rome, it becomes the
Province of Asia.
 129 BC: Parthians establish control of lands around the Tigris north of modern
Baghdad.
 130 BC: Antiochus IV dies fighting the Parthians.
 130’s BC: Introduction of secret ballot in Rome weakens clientage.
LXI
 125 BC / 115 BC: A group of priests in the Temple in Jerusalem begin the
Sadducee heresy against Judaism. It would only end with the destruction of the
Temple in 70 AD.
 123 BC: Gaius Gracchus becomes Tribune, attempts to continue the reforms of
his brother. He enjoyed wide popular, particularly with veterans abandoned by
the system, support but was also assassinated. Gaius Gracchus was killed by
Philocrates, who then killed himself. One of Gracchus's enemies decapitated the
body, and the head was taken by Septimuleius (a client of Opimius), who took
the head to Opimius. It weighed in on the scale at over seventeen pounds and so
Opimius paid Septimuleius this weight in gold, as he had promised.
 118 –117 BC: Roman campaigns in Dalmatia.
 112 BC – 106 BC: Jugurtha War won by Marius.
 104 BC – 102 BC: Second Sicilian Slave War.
 104 BC: Aristobolus [104 – 103 BC] follows as second of the Hasmonean Dynasty
in Judaea.
 103 BC: Alexander Janneus [103 – 76 BC] succeeds to Judaea.
 102 BC – 101 BC: Marius defeats the Teutons and Cimbri.
 107 BC- 100 BC: C. Marius elected consul 6 times; major reform of Roman
Legions.
 100 BC: Laocoon
LXII
 91 BC 88 BC: The attempted reforms of M. Livius Drusus leads to the Social War
between Rome and her Italian Allies.
After her victory Rome offers them
citizenship.
 88 BC: L. Sulla marches on Rome.
 88 BC – 85 BC: Mithridates VI of Pontus massacres Roman citizens in Asia
seeking Greek liberty form Rome.
 87 BC: Marius marches on Rome but dies at age 86.
 86 BC: Sulla captures Athens and Greece.
 85 BC: Scythians replace the Greek states in the region of what is modern
Pakistan and Kashmir.
 83 BC: Sulla drives Cinna and Marius' followers from Rome. Sulla's Purge
[Proscriptions] kills as many as 100,00 Romans.
 80 BC: Sulla restores Roman Senatorial power. He dies in 79 BC.
 76 BC: Salome Alexandra [76 – 69 BC] reigns of Hasmonean queen.
 74 BC – 63 BC: Third Mithridatic War.
Pompey defeats Mithridates and
reorganizes the east, which is under his personal patronage. 64 BC saw the end
of the Seleucid monarchy and independence of Judaea.
 73 BC – 71 BC: Gladiator named Spartacus leads slave revolt in southern Italy.
Put down by Pompey and Crassus. Pompey granted special imperium
 70 BC: Cicero’s greatest prosecution: the corrupt Sicilian governor Verres.
LXIII
 69 BC: Aristobolus II [69 – 63 BC] begins his rule as the last of the Hasmonean
Dynasty and last independent ruler of the Land of Israel until David ben Gurion
in 1948 AD, or, 2011 years.
 63 BC: Cicero defeats Catiline (ally of Crassus) for consulship. Rise of the ‘New
Men.’ Catiline hatches a plot, and Cicero puts down this "Catilinarian
Conspiracy." The Catiline Orations some of his most famous.
 62 BC: Pompey disbands his army. Forms First Triumvirate with Crassus and
Caesar to fight against Senate.
 60’s BC: Fearing Pompey, Crassus allies with Julius Caesar
 59 BC: Caesar elected consul. He begins his campaigns in Gaul with the famous
13th Legion.
 59 BC-17 AD: Livy, wrote History of Rome
 58 BC – 52 BC: Caesar writes his account of the Gallic Wars.
 55 BC – 54 BC: Caesar invades Britain. In 55 BC Lucretius dies and his work On
the Nature of Things is published posthumously. In the same year the Theater
of Pompey is completed.
 54 BC: death of Roman poet Catullus [born: 84 BC]. Mark Anthony becomes a
member of Caesar’s general staff in Gaul.
 53 BC: the disastrous Battle of Carrhae in which Crassus is killed and the Legions
totally destroyed fighting the Parthians.
LXIV
 51 - 52 BC: Caesar finishes conquering Gaul at the Battle of Alesia [52]. Ordered
to give up his command.
In 51 BC the Parthians invade Syria and Cicero
publishes his work On the Republic.
 50 BC Death of Posidonius of Apamea [born: 135 BC], historian, poet &
philosopher. In Northern Europe the Germanic Frisii and Batavi have fully
settled in the areas of modern Holland. Mark Anthony becomes Tribune of the
Plebs.
 49 BC: Caesar crosses the Rubicon. The Senate invokes the ultimate decree,
giving power to Pompey. The Civil War begins.
 48 BC: The Battle of Pharsalus; Pompey is defeated by Caesar and flees to
Alexandria, Egypt. There he is murdered and beheaded. Caesar performs his
Funeral Rites and it is at this time he meets Cleopatra. Settling an inter-palace
dispute he put her on the throne. Together they have a son.
 46 BC: Caesar appointed dictator for life. Construction of the Forum of Caesar is
begun in Rome.
 44 BC: Longinus, Cassius, and Brutus assassinate Caesar on the Senate floor on
Ides [15th] of March. Cicero’s main philosophical works are published, including
On Duty. In this year Cicero also attack Mark Anthony in his Philippics, eventual
to his undoing.
 43 BC: Second Triumvirate formed with Mark Anthony, Lepidus & Octavian.
Cicero is killed [born: 106 BC] that year in the proscriptions of Mark Anthony.
 42 BC: Second Triumvirate defeats Brutus at the Battle of Phillipi in Greece.
Brutus and Cassius commit suicide.
LXV
 41 BC: Mark Anthony in the east & meets that female cobra whose sexual poison
ruins him. He formally marries Octavian’s sister Octavia in 40 BC.
 40 BC/ 37 BC: Herod the Great [40/37 BC – 4 BC] begins his tyranny over Judaea.
 39: With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with his new
wife, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes
of the god Dionysus. But the rebellion in Sicily of Sextus Pompeius, the last of the
Pompeians, kept the army promised to Antony in Italy. With his plans again
severed, Antony and Octavian quarreled once more.
 38: the treaty of Tarnetum renews the triumvirate for five years.
 37 BC– 30BC: The publications of Virgil’s Eclogues.
 36 BC – 35 BC: Campaigns against Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great.
In the same year were Mark Anthony’s disastrous campaigns against the
Parthians.
 35 BC: death of historian Sallust [born: 86 BC].
Mark Anthony conquerors
Armenia.
 32: the relationship between Octavian and Mark Anthony deteriorates rapidly
under the influence of Cleopatra, particularly with threats to the grain shipments
to Rome. Mark Anthony’s will is read in the Senate, a taboo but the contents are
scandalous and turn the plebs against him due to his favoritism towards
Cleopatra.
 31 BC: Octavan defeats Antony at battle of Actium.
LXVI
 30 BC: the suicides of Mark Anthony and Celopatra.
What follows is the
annexation of Egypt by Rome.
 29 BC: The Temple of Caesar consecrated on August 18.
 27 BC – 68: the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
 27 BC: Octavian given the title ‘Augustus’ with sole power and perpetual sole
consulship after the First Constitutional Settlement. Around the same year is the
Immaculate Conception & birth of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Arch of Augustus
dedicated.
 27 BC – 19 BC: Agrippa completes the conquest of northwest Spain.
 23 BC: Publication of Horace’s Odes [the final book published in 13 BC]. In the
same
year a conspiracy against Augustus was put down and the Second
Constitutional Settlement.
 20 BC: Peaceful settlement with Parthia, Roman Standards returned.
 19 BC: Bath of Agrippa completed.
 18 BC: Augustan marriage and social reforms.
 19 BC: death of the Roman poet P. Vergilius Maro aka ‘Virgil’ [born: 70 BC]. The
same year The Aeneid is published.
 12 BC – 9 BC: Campaigns of Tiberius in Pannonia.
 11 BC: Franks migrate into lower Rhine [eventually heading north] from the
Black Sea under a hereditary chieftain called Francio – replacing the earlier tribal
LXVII
name Sicambri (or Sugambri) – said to be an offshoot of the Cimmerians or
Scythian.
 9 BC: The Battle of Teutoburg Forest: Varus had stationed his armies near the Weser
River with his three legions, the Seventeenth, the Eighteenth and the Nineteenth, when
news arrived of a growing revolt in the Rhine area to the west. Despite several warnings,
Varus trusted Arminius, the man who appealed for his help, because he was a
Romanised Germanic prince and commander of an auxiliary cavalry unit. Not only was
Varus' trust in Arminius a terrible misjudgement, but Varus compounded it by placing
his legions in a position where their fighting strengths would be minimized and that of
the Germanic tribesmen maximized. Arminius and the Cherusci tribe, along with other
allies, had skillfully laid an ambush, and in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in
September (east of modern Osnabrück), the Germanic tribes ambushed the vulnerable
Roman column. On the third day of fighting, the Germanic fighters overwhelmed the
Romans at Kalkriese Hill, north of Osnabrück. Accounts of the defeat are scarce, due to
the totality of the defeat, but one account tells of some Roman cavalry which abandoned
the infantry they were supposed to be supporting and fled to the Rhine, but were
intercepted by the Germanic tribesmen and killed. Some captured Romans were placed
inside wicker cages and burned alive others were enslaved or ransomed. Tacitus reports
that the victorious Germanic tribes sacrificed captive officers to their gods on altars that
could still be seen years later. Varus himself, upon seeing all hope was lost, committed
suicide. Arminius cut off his head and sent it to Bohemia as a present to King Marbod of
the Marcomanni, the other most important Germanic leader, whom Arminius wanted to
coax into an alliance, but Marbod declined the offer and sent the head on to Rome for
burial.
The Ara Pacis was consecrated on January 30.
 8 BC: death of Roman poet Horace [born: 65BC].
 7 BC: The Incarnation on Yom Kippur, et Verbum caro factum est. Also, the
birth of John the Baptist.
 6 BC – 9 AD: The Pannonian Revolt
 5 BC: Visit of the Magi to the Holy Infant. Massacre of the Innocents by Herod
and the flight to Egypt.
 4 BC: Herod Antipas [4 BC – 39] is made Tetrarch of Galilee.
LXVIII
 2 BC: Forum Augustus completed.
 6: The youth Jesus at 12 discourses with the Rabbis and Doctors in the Temple.
Archelaus is banished by the Roman authorities for his incompetence and
massacres. Judaea, Samaria and Idumea are united by Caesar Augustus as a
Roman province henceforth called ‘Palestine.’
It is governed by a Roman
Procurator. The first is Caponius [6 – 9].
 9: M. Ambivius Procurator [9 – 12] of Palestine.
 12: Annius Rufus [12 – 15] Procurator of Palestine.
 14: Tiberius [ruled 14 – March 16, 37] succeeds Augustus.
 14-180: ‘Silver Age’ of Latin Literature begins.
 15: Valerius Gratus [15 – 26] Procurator of Palestine.
 16: Death of Roman poet Ovid [born: 43 BC]. Exiled by Augustus for immorality
in 8 AD.
 17: the Lombards and Semnones fought alongside the Cherusci against Marobod
and the Marcomanni.
 19: Death of Germanicus.
 23: Death of Drusus, the emperor’s son.
 25 / 26: Jesus begins His public ministry, the martyrdom of John the Baptist.
 26: Tiberius retires to depravity on Capri until his death is 37. In the same year
he appoints Pontius Pilatus [26 – 36] Procurator of Palestine.
LXIX
 30: Traditional date of the Crucifixion of Jesus and His Resurrection.
 31: Sejanus, praetorian prefect and effective ruler of Rome and his followers are
massacred.
 31/32: The Martyrdom of Deacon St. Stephan, to the approval of Saul of Tarsus.
 33/34: The Conversion of Saul of Tarsus on the road to Damascus to persecute the
Infant Church.
 36: Pontius Pilatus orders the massacre of Samaritans on pilgrimage to Mt.
Gerizim to artifacts believed to have been hidden by Moses. The Legate of Syria,
L. Vitellius, sends him to Rome to account for his actions. Marcellus [36 – 41] is
made Procurator of Palestine.
 37: Caligula [ruled 37 – January 24, 41] the Monster succeeds Tiberius.
In
October of 37 he contracted a serious illness, after which he fully emerged as a
monster. Also in 37, he made his good friend, Herod Agrippa, the governor of
territories Batanaea and Trachonitis.
 38: Caligula ordered the prefect, Aulus Avilius Flaccus, to erect statues of the
Emperor in Jewish synagogues. Riots broke out in Alexandria and Flaccus was
removed.
 39: Philip [39 – 59] Tetrarch of Galilee. Caligula humiliates the Senate by forcing
them to trot along with his chariot in full dress, and then appoints his horse to
office. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius [circa]: the mission to the Gentiles begins.
 40: The Alexandrian Riots between Jews and Greeks begin by attacks against the
Jews for not worshipping the Emperor.
LXX
 41: [January 24] C. Charrea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was
addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and
dramatics held for the Divine Augustus. Charrea requested the watchword from
Caligula; Josephus records that it was another slight against Charrea, though
Suetonius states that it was simply "Jupiter". Suetonius records two versions; in
the first, Charrea struck Caligula from behind while he was addressing the boys,
and in the second, Charrea responded to the watchword with "So be it!" and
attacked. After the first blow, Caligula cried for help, prompting the other
assassins to strike as well; Suetonius records a total of 30 wounds, some through
the genitals, and Josephus credits the Praetorian Aquila with having delivered
the killing blow. Another assassin sought out and stabbed Caligula's wife
Caesonia and killed their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head
against a wall. By the time Caligula's loyal German guard responded, the
Emperor was already dead. The German guard, stricken with grief and rage,
responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent
senators and bystanders alike.
 41: Claudius [ruled 41 – October 13, 54] unwillingly assumes the purple after
Cassius Charrea and the Praetorians liberate Rome by slaying the Monster.
 42: The first persecution of the Church under Herod Agrippa. Many flee to
Antioch and establish the Church’s presence there.
 43: Invasion of Britain under Aulus Plautius.
 44: Cuspius Fadus [44 – 46] sent as Procurator of Palestine. Martyrdom of St.
James the Great, apostle.
LXXI
 44/45: Claudius suppresses the Druid cast and bans their human sacrifices.
 46: Julius Alexander [46 – 48] Procurator of Palestine.
 45 – 100: The New Testament Period
 46 – 49: Paul’s First Missionary Journey.
 47: the Lombards conquer the Cherusci
 48: Ventidius Cumanus [48 – 52] rules as Procurator of Palestine. In the same
year the wife of the emperor Claudius, Messalina, attempt a ‘marriage’ to Gaius
Silius.
 49: The Synod of Jerusalem rules that circumcision and adherence to the Mosaic
Law is not required of Gentile converts to Christianity.
 50: Death of hebro-Hellenistic philosopher Philo of Alexandria [born: 20 BC].
Claudius expels astrologers, Jews and Christians from Rome.
 50 – 52: Paul’s Second Missionary Journey.
 54: Nero [reigned 54 – 68] assumes power after the murder of the Emperor
Claudius. From 54 – 62 the philosopher Seneca and military man Burrus manage
to control the young emperor. However, the death of Burrus in 62 marked was a
turning point down.
 54 – 58: Paul’s Third Missionary Journey. In 58 Paul is arrested in the Temple in
Jerusalem by the Temple Guard and would have been murder if the Roman
soldiers did not intervene.
 56: Antonius Felix [56 – 60] Procurator of Palestine.
LXXII
 59: Murder of Nero’s mother Agrippina on his orders.
 60’s: The Gospel of Mark dictated by St. Peter in Rome, according to Papias who
had first-hand knowledge thereof.
 60: Porcius Festus [60 – 62] serves as Procurator of Palestine.
In the same year
Paul makes is ‘appeal to Caesar’ and is sent under arrest with St. Luke to Rome.
 61: Revolt of Boudicca in Britain.
 62: Martyrdom of St. James the lesser, apostle and bishop of Jerusalem.
 64: Fire in Rome. Nero scapegoats the Christians. Martyrdoms of St. Peter and
Paul [some put this at 67]. In the same year Gessius Florus [64 – 66] became
Procurator of Palestine.
 64 / 67: St. Linus [reigned 64/67 – 79] follows St. Peter as Pope.
 64 – 68: Building of Nero’s ‘golden house.’
 65: L. Anneaus Seneca [born: 4 BC], Stoic philosopher and playwright, is forced
to commit suicide by order of Nero. The Pisonian Conspiracy against the animal
Nero.
 66: Suicide of Petronius, author of The Satyricon
 66 – 73: The Jewish Revolt.
 68: Emperor Nero commits suicide on June 9.
With him passes the Julio-
Claudians.
LXXIII
 69: The Year of the 4 Emperors; Galba, Otho, Vitellius & Vespasian. Second Civil
War.
 69 – 96: The Flavian Dynasty
 69: Vespasian [ruled 69 – 79] defeats rival to attain power.
 70: Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by Titus. Rabbi Yohannon
ben Zakki establishes center of Jewish learning in Yavnah, saving Judaism.
 78 – 85: Campaigns of Agricola in Britain.
 79: Death of governor, naturalist and encyclopedist Pliny the Elder.
 79: St. Ariacletus [79 – 88] inherits the Keys as Pope.
 79: Titus [ruled 79 – 81] inherits power from his father. In the same year the
eruption of Vesuvius destroys Pompeii.
 80: The Capitoline Temple in Rome is destroyed by fire. The Colosseum is
inaugurated.
 70’s/80’s: The publication of The Shepherd of Hermes
 81: Domitian [ruled 81 – 96] begins rule.
 86 – 92: Domitian’s wars against the Dacians.
 88: St. Clement I [reigned 88 – 97] begins reign as Pope.
 90’s: the Gospel of John was written in this period.
 92 – 101/102: The period during which Martial published his work.
LXXIV
 95/96: Pope St. Clement I [reigned 90-99] and sends his Letter to the Corinthians.
It is clear from the subject and tone that he is speaking with authority over these
churches, hence, this is an important early document for the lead3ership of the
bishop of Rome.
 95: Persecution of Christians in Rome.
 96 – 192: Age of the Antonines: Rome at her height.
 96: The reign of Nerva [96 – January 27, 98]. After his accession, Nerva went to
set a new tone: he released those imprisoned for treason, banned future
prosecutions for treason, granted amnesty to many whom Domitian had exiled,
restored much confiscated property, and involved the Roman Senate in his rule.
He probably did so as a means to remain relatively popular (and therefore alive),
but this did not completely aid him. Support for Domitian in the army remained
strong.
 96: St. John writes the book of Revelations in exile on Patmos.
 97: In October the Praetorian Guard surround the Imperial Palace on the Palatine
Hill, holding the emperor basically hostage till he agreed to their demands. St.
Evaristus [97 – 105] becomes Pope.
 98: Trajan [ruled 98 – August 9, 117] assumes the purple.
 100 - 111: Tacitus [life: 56 – 117] write his Histories and Annals. By this time the
Germanic tribe of the Chatti have fully settled the north-central region of the east
side of the Rhine river.
 100 – 165: Astrology banned.
LXXV
 101-117: Trajan’s wars of expansion seeking new revenue sources. Conquering
Dacia [101- 106]; Armenia and Mesopotamia [114 –117] conquered and annexed.
The Roman Empire here reaches its greatest geographic expanses.
 105: St. Alexander I [105 – 115] becomes Pope.
 107 / 117: Martyrdom of St. Ignatius of Antioch, disciple of the Apostle John,
bishop & Apostolic Father.
 111: Pliny the Younger as governor of Bithynia writes to Trajan commenting that
Christians are not guilty of vices claimed against them.
 115: St. Sixtus I [reigned 115 – 125] becomes Pope.
 115 – 117: The Second Jewish Revolt.
 117: Hadrian [117 –July 10, 138] begins rule.
During his time he had the
Pantheon built in Rome and Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.
 119: Suetonius [life: 69/75 – 130 (circa)] publishes The Twelve Caesars.
 121: Hadrian tours northern Danube frontier.
 125: St. Telesphorus [125 – 136] becomes Pope. Hadrian visits Greece.
 127: Death of Greek historian Plutarch [born: 46].
 130: Hadrian visits Egypt.
His eromenos Antinous drowns in the Nile on
October 28.
 131: Hadrian establishes the Panhellenion of Greek cities.
LXXVI
 132 – 135: Bar Kochba’s revolt [3rd Jewish Revolt] leads to final dispersion of the
Jews.
 135: Hadrian excludes the Jews from the ruins of Jerusalem.
 136: St. Hyginus [136 – 140] begins reign as successor of St. Peter.
 138: Antonius Pius [138 – 161] assumes the purple. Death of Stoic philosopher
Epictetus [born: 50].
 138 – 220: Rabbi Yehudah HaNassi codifies Jewish Law into a written form, the
Mishnah.
In 138 the emperor officially recognized Judaism as a legitimate
religion.
 140: Pius I [140 – 155] becomes Pope. The lower Galilee town of Ush replaces
Yavnah as the dominant center of Judaic scholarship.
 143: Valentius begins the heresy of ‘Christian’ Gnosticism.
 144: Marcian of Sinope begins the heretical Marconian movement.
 148: 900th Anniversary of the Founding of Rome.
 150: [circa] publication of The Didache.
 155: Anicetus [155 – 166] occupies the Chair of St. Peter.
 156: The Martyrdom of St. Polycarp in Antioch.
 161: Marcus Aurelius [ruled 161 – 180] succeeds to power.
 162 –166: Parthian Wars of L. Verus.
LXXVII
 165: the martyrdom of Justin Martyr. In the same year the Greek astronomer and
geographer whose world view would reign until Gallileo dies: Claudius Ptolemy
[born: 85].
 165 –167: Plague spreads through the Roman Empire, brought back by ill
veterans from Parthia.
 166: the martyrdom of Polycarp in Antioch. In the same year the Papacy passes
to St. Soter [166 – 175]. 6,000 Lombard warriors cross the frozen Danube and
invade Pannonia.
 167: Germanic Lombards defeated by the Romans.
 168 – 175: German Wars.
 172: [circa] Montanus begins the Montanist movement that falls into heresy.
 174 – 180: Meditations of Marcus Aurelius.
 175: St. Eleuterus [175 – 189] becomes Pope.
 176 / 177: Athenagoras publishes the Embassy for the Christians as a plea to the
Emperor and his son Commodus for tolerance of Christianity.
 180: Commodus [a soiled rule from 180 – 192]. A sad twilight to a great era. This
year also marks the first raids of the Mauri [Moors] into Baetica in south
Hispania.
 182-188: Irenaeus published Against the Heresies
LXXVIII
 189: St. Victor I [reigned 189-199] becomes Pope and settles the Easter
Controversy. He also excommunicated the Quartodecimians for their refusals to
accept his ruling in that controversy.
 190: Pope Victor I excommunicates Theodorus for his denies of the Godhead of
Christ.
 193: after the assassination of Commodus 4 emperors contend for power.
 193 – 235: The Severan Dynasty
 193: Septimus Severus [193 – 211] begins rule. He departs from the Augustinian
‘republican cover’ to enter the era of militarization. Power also began to shift
from the center to the provinces, creating growing strains.
 199: St. Zephyrinus [199 – 217] becomes Pope.
 208 – 211: Severan campaigns in Britain. The emperor dies at York.
 212: Caracalla [ruled 212 –217] follows his father.
 212: Roman citizenship granted universally by the Constitutio Antoniniana.
 216: Baths of Caracalla complete.
 217: Death of Clement of Alexandria. In the same year St. Calixtus I [217 – 222]
succeeds to the Papacy. Hippolytus begins reign as anti-pope [217 –235].
 218: Elagabalus [218 –222] becomes emperor.
 200: The Burgundians migrate, the Alamans raid the empire and the Goth tribes
divide.
LXXIX
 202 – 203: persecution of the Church
 220: Death of Tertullian. The Ostrogoths settle near the Slavic tribes.
 222: Severus Alexander [222 – 235] becomes emperor & St. Urban I [222 – 230]
assumes the Papacy.
 223: Murder of Praetorian Prefect & Jurist, Ulpian, by his own troops.
 226: Ardashir the Sassanian, crowned king of kings of Persia inaugurates a 400
year period of aggression against the Roman Empire and Western Civilization.
The 4th Persian Dynasty begins.
 229: Cassius Dio publishes his history of Rome in Greek.
 230: St. Pontion [230 – 235] begins reign as Pope.
 235 – 300: The Crisis of the Third Century
 235: St. Anterus [235 –236] begins rule as Pope.
 235: Maximus Thrax [235 – 238] assumes power until killed by his own troops.
 236: St. Fabian [236 – 250] succeeds to the Papacy.
 238: The first Gothic incursions into the Roman Empire.
 238: Year of the 5 Emperors
Gordian I – suicide
Gordian II – killed in battle
Pupienus Maximus – killed by Praetorians
LXXX
Balbinus – killed by Praetorians
Gordian III – reigned: 238 – 244
 241: Shapur I [241 – 272] inherits the Persian throne.
 242: Goths reach the Black Sea in their raids.
 244: Philip the Arab seizes the purple [ruled 244 – 249] until killed in battle by
Decisus.
 249: Reign of Decius and his persecution of the Christians. In 251 Decius was killed
in battle.
 250: Romans transfer soldiers from West to East to fight Sassanids and Goths. The
Goths invade Asia Minor, a number of them settle there.
 250 – 251: The Decian Persecution of the Church.
 251: St. Cornelius [251 – 253] begins reign as Pope while Novatian [251 – 258]
begins his rule as anti-pope.

251: Herennius is made and unmade as emperor in one year, being killed in
battle. St Cyprian publishes On the Unity of the Church.
 251: Trebonianus Gallus [251 – 253] rules until killed by soldiers. His co-emperor
was Volusianus, same dates and fate.
 253: St. Lucius I [253 – 254] becomes Pope.
 253: Aemilianus is ruler for part of the year but us killed by his own troops.
LXXXI
 253: Valerian [253 – 260] takes up the purple. His co-ruler was Gallienus [253 –
(assassinated) 268].
 254: Death of Origin [born: 200]. In the same year St. Stephen I [254 – 257]
becomes Pope.
 257: St. Sixtus II [257 – 258] becomes Pope.
 257 – 259: The Emperor Valerian launches a persecution against the Christians.
 258: Martyrdom of Cyprian. The Franks enter Gaul.
 259: St. Dionysus [259 – 268] becomes Pope. The Battle of Edessa. Valerian is not
only defeated by the Sassanids but captured.
 260: Salonius is c0-emperor with Gallienus.
 260: The Gallic Empire breaks away from Roman rule: 260 – 274. Emperors:
Postumus: 260 – 268
Marius: 269
Victorinus: 269 – 271
Tetricus: 271 - 274
 267: Heruli invade Greece. Constantinople is besieged by the Goths.
 268 – 284: The Illyrian Emperors
 268: Claudius II Gothicus [268 – 270] begins rule. He died of plague.
LXXXII
 268-275: Claudius II Gothicus and Aurelian drive back barbarians and restore
some discipline. A period of major Germanic migrations and raids until smaller
migrations of 273 -276. Often this is one tribe displacing another.
 269: St. Felix I [269 – 274] becomes Pope.
 270: Death of Plotinus [born: 204], founder of neo-Platonism. Quintillus [270]
becomes emperor but commits suicide within this year. Aurelian [270 – 275]
succeeds him. He was killed by the Praetorians.
 271: Vandals attack central Danube but their advance is checked.
 273: Bahram [273 – 276] succeeds to Persian. During his reign Mani and his
followers were persecuted.
 275: St. Eutychian [275 – 283] becomes Pope.
Tacitus [275 – 276] becomes
emperor.
 276: Florianus becomes emperor but is killed within a year. He is followed by
Probus [276 – 282] who will be killed by his own soldiers.
 279: Bahram II [279 – 293] succeeds to Persia.
 283: St. Caius [283 – 296] inherits the Keys given to St. Peter. Numerion [283 –
285] becomes emperor.
 284 – 350: The Tetrarchy and the Constantinian Dynasty
 284: Diocletian [284 – 306] begins rule and grants the Empire a new lease on life.
He re-establishes central power and founds the Tetrarchy.
 286: Milan becomes capital of Western Empire.
LXXXIII
 286: The Britannic Empire: 286 – 297
 293: Bahram III briefly ruler of Persia, Narseh [293 – 302] assumes the crown.
 296: St. Marcellinus [296 – 304] becomes Pope. The Battle of Callinicium near the
Euphrates Galerius is defeated by Bahram.
 300: Diocletian divides empire and creates the ‘Tetrarchy.’ Maximian becomes
co-emperor in Constantinople. He and Diocletian both abdicate in the same year,
305. Christianity was introduced in Armenia.
 300 – 700: The period of the Great Migration or Völkerwanderung of Germanic and later
Slavic tribes. This is the marker of Late Antiquity.
 301: Diocletian issues government price controls to attempt to control hyperinflations. He fixes the peasants to the soil and makes all offices an hereditary
obligations.
 302: Hormidz [302 – 309] assumes throne of Persia.
 303 –305: The Diocletian Persecution of the Church.
 305: Constantinus I Chlorus becomes emperor in the west [305 – 306] while his
co-emperor is Galerius [305 – 311]. In Spain the Council of Elvira approves the
first cannons imposing clerical celibacy.
 306: Severus II [306 – 307] rules as co-emperor with Galerius.
 307: Maximian [307 – 308] becomes emperor. He abdicated.
 307 – 312: Basilica of Maxentius built in Rome.
LXXXIV
 308: Maxentius [308 – 312] becomes emperor.
He would be defeated by
Constantine in October, 312, at the Milvian Bridge. Licinius [308 – 324] begins
term as co-emperor.
 309: Beginning of the First Golden era of the Sassanid Empire in Persia. The
reign of Shapur II [309 – 379]. Zoroastrian texts collected and edited.
 308: St. Marcellus I [308 – 309] becomes Pope.
 309: St. Eusebius [309 – 310] becomes Pope.
 310: Maximinus Daia [310 – 313] becomes co-emperor until his suicide.
 311: Edict of Toleration permits Christian worship. The same year St. Miltidades
[311 – 314] becomes Pope.
 312: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Constantine sees the vision of the XP in the
sun and the words, ‘IN HOC SIGNO VINCIS.’ He wins and is converted. The
Roman military remains overwhelmingly devoted to the cult of Mithras to the
end. Constantine I begins his rule [312 – May 337].
 313: Donatus initiates the Donatist heresy. From 313 – 322 the first Christian
Basilica was built in Rome. This is the beginning of the era of the Desert Fathers,
monks retreating either as hermits or as organized communities in the deserts of
Egypt, Palestine & Syria. This year also saw the first appeal to the Christians to
a secular court to settle differences on the part of the Donatists.
 314: Council of Arelas I. St. Silvester I [314 – 335] succeeds to the Papacy.
 316: Valerius Valens [316 – 317] becomes co-emperor of Licinus.
He was
executed by Constantine I.
LXXXV
 319: Arius begins the Arian heresy in Alexandria, Egypt. This movement came
the closest to destroying the Roman Church before the Modernist heresies.
 320: St. Pachomius founds the first two formal monasteries, one for each sex in
Tabennisi.
 323: Licinus, emperor of the east, persecutes Christians.
 324: Constantine becomes sole emperor and founds the city of Constantinople.
Christianity becomes the Roman religion. In the same year Eusebius published
his Church History. Martinianus [324] is co-emperor with Licinus.
 325: Nicene Creed from Council of Nicea. Comdemns heresy of Arianism. Death
of Lactantius.
 330: Constantine moves Roman capital to Constantinople.
 336: The one-year reign of St. Marcus as Pope. This year also is the first recorded
Christmas on December 25th in Rome. In the east January 6th was still kept as
Epiphany.
 337: St. Julius I [337 – 352] begins reign as Pope. Constantine II [337 – 340]
becomes co-emperor. He was killed in battle. Constans I also becomes a coemperor [337 – 350]. He was killed by Magnentius.
 343 – 344: Council of Serdica.
 348 - 420: Jerome produces Latin translation of the Bible, the Vulgate
 350: the Goths are converted to the Arian heresy.
 352: Liberius [352 – 365] becomes Pope.
LXXXVI
 353: Emperor Constantinus II issues an edict prohibiting idol worship on pain of
death. The majority of the peoples of the empire are still pagan.
 354-430: Augustine, Bishop of Hippo. Confessions and City of God, in response
to claim that Rome's fall was due to disregarding old gods and turning to
Christianity.
 355: struggle for control of shipping lanes on the Rhine [till 358] with the Franks.
Julian [later the Apostate] makes a treaty with them in 358, transforming them
into allies of the Empire. In Rome Constantinus II kidnaps pope Liberius to
approve the Arian creed and condemn St. Athanasius. For his refusal he is
banished to Thrace. The Ronan population is outraged. Liberius returned in 357.
 359: Hillel II issues a perpetual Jewish calendar based on the lunar cycle.
 36o: Julian, ‘The Apostate,’ [360 – 363] becomes emperor and attempt to revive
Rome's traditional cults. Around this time books began to replace scrolls.
 The Late Roman Empire: 364 – 388: The Valentinian Dynasty
 364: Valentinian [reigned 364 – 374] becomes emperor in the west. Goths invade
the northern frontier.
 364: Valens [reigned 364 – 378].
 366: St. Damascus I [366 – 384] inherits the Keys given to St. Peter by Christ. This
same year is the Battle of the Catalonian Fields with the Huns. Procopius is
killed.
 367: Gratian [367 – 383] becomes emperor. His reign ended in assassination.
LXXXVII
 369: Goths declare war on Rome due to a Roman trade embargo denying them
trade for foodstuffs.
 375: Valentinian II [ruled 375 – 392]. Thousand of German refugees flood the
Empire in a peek of migration.
 377 – 382: The Gothic Wars
 376: Valens allows visigoths to enter the empire to escape the Huns.
 378: The battle of Adrianople: Visigoths destroy Valens and his army with the
first use of heavy cavalry as the main force in history.
 378 – 395: The Theodosian Dynasty
 378: Theodosius the Great [378 – 395] begins rule as emperor.
 379: Ardashir II [379 - 383] succeeds in Persia.
 379: Theodosius I [ruled in east: 379 – January 395] becomes emperor. In the
same year the Church Father & theologian St. Basil dies [born: 330].
 381: Council of Constantinople I
 382: Council of Rome
 383: Magnus Maximus [reigned 383 – 388]. At the end of his reign he was
deposed and executed by Theodosius I. In the east Arcadius begins his reign
[383 – 395]. In Persia Shapur III [383 -388] assumes power.
 384: St. Siricius [384 – 399] becomes Pope.
LXXXVIII
 388: Bahram IV [389 – 399] begins rule in Persia. Death of Ulfias [born: 310]
missionary to the Goths and translator of the Bible into the Gothic language.
 389: a famine in Rome.
 390: Huns settle in Pannonian basin. In Milan St. Ambrose threatens Emperor
Theodosius with excommunication for his massacre of 7,000 people in
Thessalonica as punishment for the murder of a Roman official. The Emperor
does public penance.
 391: All pagan temples closed in the western Empire by Theodosius.
 393: Honorius takes up the stained purple in the west [393 – 395]. He is the last of
the Theodosian Dynasty.
 394: Death of St. Gregory of Nyssa [born: 335], Church Father.
 395: Division of the Empire between the sons of Theodosius.
Arcadius [395 –
408] is made emperor in Constantinople.
 397: Council of Carthage. The Sacred Scriptures are canonized.
 399: St. Anastasius I [399 – 401] succeeds to the Chair of St. Peter. In Persia
Yazdegerd I (399–421) assumes power.
 400: Visigoths under Alaric I [reigned 395 –410] first invasion of Italy with Goth
chieftain Radagaisus.
 401: St. Innocent I [401 – 417] becomes Pope.
 402: Honorius transfers the capital from Milan to Ravenna.
LXXXIX
 403: Alaric defeated at Verona & withdrawals from Italy.
 406: Vandals advance from Pannonia and were resisted by the Franks. 20,000
Vandals and their king Godigisel are killed. Later in the year in December the
new Vandal king Gunderic with the Alans defeat the Franks and successful cross
into Gaul. Another peek year of Germanic migration into the Empire.
 408: Alaric’s second invasion of Italy when the Romans refuse him land and
tribute demands. Theodosius II [408 – 450] succeeds to Constantinople.
 409: In October the Vandals invade the Iberian Peninsula.
 410: Visigoths, under Alaric, occupy Rome on August 24 but do not violate
Christian Shrines.
 415: Death of Greek philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria [born: 370].
 416: Council of Mileum
 417: St. Zosimus [417 – 418] begins short reign as Pope.
 418: St. Boniface I [418 – 422] becomes Pope. In the same year Eulalius [418 – 419]
starts his stint as an anti-pope. The Visigoths are settled in Aquitaine.
 420: St. Jerome [born: 347] goes into the West and his Eternal Rewards. The semiPelagian controversy begins. This would be condemned at eh Second Council of
Orange in 520.
 421: Constantinus III reigns for one year. In Persia Bahram V [421 – 438] begins
rule. He is one of the most heroic and mythical of the Sassanid monarchs. He
was key in resisting the invasions of the Turks through Persian territory.
XC
 422: St. Celestine I [422 – 432] assumes the Papacy.
A Christian mob in
Alexandria lynch the pagan female philosopher Hypatia. This year also saw the
beginning of the Nestorian heresy.
 425: Death of the last Hilelite Patriarch Gamliel VI [born: 370]. In the same year
Valentinian III begins reign [425 – 455].
 429: Vandals under king Geiseric invade Africa.
 430: Church Father and theologian St. Augustine of Hippo shuffles off this
mortal coil for Heaven [born: 354].
 431: Council of Ephesus
 432: St. Sixtus III [432 – 440] becomes Pope.
 433: Death of Church Father and monastic St. John Cassian [born: 360].
 434: Attila and Bleda assume leadership of the Huns.
 435: The Romans double their tribute to the Huns and open Roman markets to
Hunnish trade.
 438: Yazdegerd II [438–457] begins reign in Persia. He persecuted the Christian
under his rule.
 439: Vandals conquer Carthage and establish themselves in North Africa.
 440: St. Leo I [440 – 461] assumes the task of Vicar of Christ.
 441: Attila invades the Balklands.
XCI
 447: Roman army under the Gothic magister militum Arnegiselus is defeated by
Attila at the Vid River. He continued to rampage.
 450: Marcian [450 – 457] assumes the purple in Constantinople to rule east. The
Saxons begin the invasion of Celtic Britain as the Roman forces withdrawal.
 451: Attila the Hun drives the Western emperor Valentinian III from the capital,
Ravenna, and invades Gaul. The Battle of Chalons: Romans and Visigoths under
Aetius defeat Attila, plunging the Huns into chaos and they withdrawal.
Visigoth king Theodorus I is killed. The Council of Chalcedon.
 452: Attila invades Italy over a marriage dispute but is persuaded to stop
aggression at the Po River by Leo I.
 453: Death of Attila the Hun [born: 406], the ‘Scourge of God.’
 454: Death of Flavius Aetius [born: 396] Roman general and hero, the only man
who could have saved Rome. The last of the great Romans.
In the same year
was the Battle of Nedao, the result of which was the breaking of Hunnish power
in Central and Eastern Europe at the hands of the Germanic Gepid king Ardaric.
 455: Vandals sack Rome for two weeks beginning on June 2. The one year reign
of Petronius Maximus.
 457: Majorian begins to reign but abdicates in the year 461. In Persia that year
Peroz I [457 – 484] began rule. He was defeated by the White Huns and forced to
pay them tribute. In the Eastern Roman Empire Leo I [457 – 474] becomes
emperor.
 460’s: St. Patrick [born: 373 – died: 493] is actively as a missionary in Ireland.
XCII
 461: St. Hilarius [461 – 468] becomes Pope. Libius Severus begins rule [461 – 465].
 467: Anthemius begins rule [467 – (executed) 472].
 468: St. Simplicius [468 – 483] the last of the Classical Pope, but not the end. In
the same year the Vandals defeat a Byzantine fleet sent against them.
 472: Olybius rules for one year.
 474: Julius Nepos becomes emperor of the west but is forced by Odovacer to
abdicate in 475. He flees to the east and is co-emperor in the east from 476 – 480.
In Constantinople Leo II is emperor but by the end of the year Zeno [474 – 491]
begins reign.
 474: Basiliscus [475 – 476] begins reign in Constantinople.
 476: Odovacer deposes last Roman emperor, the boy Romulus Augustulus
(traditional date for "Fall of Rome") The sun sets on the Classical world.
 The Eastern Roman Empire continued as the Byzantine Empire until destroyed by the
Moslems with the death of the last emperor and the rape of Constantinople on May 29,
1453. From that time on the Turks have polluted the soil of Asia Minor where the sacred
ruins of Troy lay.
XCIII
XCIV
XCV
A map of classical Greece
XCVI
Alexander’s Conquests
XCVII
XCVIII
XCIX
C
CI
CII