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COURSE OVERVIEW This course is taught to students who have experienced one year of introductory biology and one year of chemistry. My students are from very diverse backgrounds which makes this course an excellent vehicle to transport them through their lives and help them achieve their goals. The goal of most of my students is a career in health care or science related fields, which can in turn affect the lives of others and the planet we all share. My goal is to give students a conceptual understanding of biology and how biology topics are very intertwined. I cover every chapter from Campbell’s Biology and have included listed subtopics from each chapter from Campbell’s book to demonstrate the subtopics covered in the course, The course text maps out twelve themes of biology, which are aligned with the “eight major themes” of biology according to the AP curriculum. On my list of subtopics, I have listed one or several of the eight themes of biology in italics as I see them relating to that topic. I frequently tell students that a topic we have just covered will come back to “haunt” them. Topics frequently relate back to evolution which I point out when we cover translation and the universality of genetic codons and the phylogenetic order as we move from the very beginning of life on Earth to the more complex organisms and as organisms interact and natural selection occurs. Students apply their knowledge of biology and use critical thinking to explore environmental and social concerns. When the topic of nutrition is covered, students do an activity where they are given a fast food menu and must calculate protein, carbohydrates, fats and total calories for three meals. For the fourth meal, they must make a nutritionally balanced meal. Students also do an activity where they must calculate a well balanced diet for one day and then cut calories while maintaining nutritional values. Eventually, they get down to 800 calories and an anorexic diet. We do an activity based on the Donner party and must sort out and graph data to explain why some lived and some died. These are very eye opening activities and many swear they are never eating fast food again. Environmental issues are other topics whereby students see with greater clarity how biology addresses environmental and social concerns. As my students and I are surrounded by the Great Lakes, we have been and will be profoundly affected by exotic species and pollution being introduced into our waterways. Students do research on the species introduced into our lakes and present findings. In previous years, we have tested the water in a nearby river and reported our findings in conjunction with other schools to a website at our intermediate school district. This was also done in conjunction with the We Are Here Foundation. The ethics of biotechnology also addresses both environmental and social concerns. As we study genetic engineering, cloning and new biotechnologies, students must research an issue, such as stem cell research. Students then debate the pros and cons of the issue and use their research to back up their claim. Students have the opportunity to design and conduct a minimum of two experiments, which are extensions of experiments done in class. They must gather and analyze their data, write a full lab report and present their findings. LABS Students perform all labs in the AP manual as well as others I have found over the years. Lab comprises a minimum of twenty-five percent of our class time. Each lab requires a written lab report. TEACHING STRATEGIES When not doing labs and activities, I use PowerPoint lectures with graphs, photos, illustrations, diagrams, and embedded videos. I use the module exercises from another biology text that correlates to ours for students to practice applying their knowledge. Occasionally, pertinent DVDs may be shown or interactive CDs may be used. I also use a variety of newspapers, magazines, and some journals on current events in biology. 2 ASSESSMENT I use many forms of assessment to measure understanding. Each chapter has a written test from the text. There are also quizzes, essays, research papers, lab reports, and a final cumulative exam at the end of each semester. BOOKS AND RESOURCES AP Biology Lab Manual for Students, College Entrance Examination Board, 2001. AP Biology Lab Manual for Teachers, College Entrance Examination Board, 2001. Bernstein, Ruth & Bernstein, Stephen, Biology, Wm. C. Brown Publishing, 1996. BSCS, Biology, A Human Approach, Kendall-Hunt, 1997. Campbell, Neil, Biology, Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co., 1996, Fourth Edition. Education Development Center, Inc., Insights in Biology – The Matter of Life, Kendall-Hunt, 1998. Education Development Center, Inc., Insights in Biology – Traits and Fates, Kendall-Hunt, 1998. Lawrence, Sonya, Heidemann, Merle & Straney, Donald, Biological Sciences 111L Lab Manual, Hayden-McNeil Publishing, Inc., 2000. Liebart, Richard, Student Study Guide for Biology: Concepts & Connections, Benjamin Cummings, Second Edition, 1997. Van Hoeck, Kathy, Genetics Lab and Classroom Activities, Flinn Scientific, Inc., 2001. 3 CONTENT TOPIC I Unit I Chemistry of Life (12 days) Reading + Topics Chapter 1 Themes of Biology • Life is organized on many structural levels • Each level of biological organization has emergent properties • Cells are an organism’s basic units of structure and function • The continuity of life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA • A feeling for organisms enriches the study of life • Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization • Organisms are open systems that interact continuously with their environments • Diversity and unity are the dual faces of life on Earth • Evolution is the core theme of biology • Science as a process of inquiry often involves hypotheticodeductive thinking • Science and technology are functions of society • Biology is a multidisciplinary adventure Chapter 2 The Chemical Context of Life • Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds • Life requires about 25 chemical elements • Atomic structure determines the behavior of an element • Atoms combine by chemical bonding to form molecules • Weak chemical bonds play important roles in the chemistry of life • A molecule’s biological function is related to its shape~relationship of structure to function • Chemical reactions change the composition of matter • Chemical conditions on the early Earth set the stage for the origin and evolution of life 4 Chapter 3 Water and the Fitness of the Environment • The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding • Organisms depend on the cohesion of water molecules~interdependence in nature • Water contributes to Earth’s habitability by moderating temperatures • Oceans and lakes don’t freeze solid because ice floats • Water is the solvent of life • Organisms are sensitive to changes in pH • Acid precipitation threatens the fitness of the environment~science, technology and society/interdependence of nature Chapter 4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life • Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds • Carbon atoms are the most versatile building blocks of molecules • Variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the diversity of organic molecules~evolution • Functional groups also contribute to the molecular diversity of life • The chemical elements of life Chapter 5 The Structure and Function of Macromolecules • Most macromolecules are polymers • A limitless variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers • Organisms use carbohydrates for fuel and building material~energy transfer • Lipids are mostly hydrophobic molecules with diverse functions~energy transfer • Proteins are the molecular tools for most cellular functions • A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence~relationship of structure to function • A protein’s function depends on its specific conformation~structure related to function • Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information~ relationship of structure to function • A DNA strand is a polymer with an information-rich sequence of nucleotides 5 • • Inheritance is based on precise replication of DNA relationship of structure to function We can use DNA and proteins as measures of evolution~evolution Chapter 6 An Introduction to Metabolism • The chemistry of life is organized into metabolic pathways~energy transfers • Organisms transform energy~energy transfers • The energy transformations of life are subject to two laws of thermodynamics • Organisms live at the expense of free energy • ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic to endergonic reactions • Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers • Enzymes are substrate-specific~structure related to function • The active site is an enzyme’s catalytic center • A cell’s chemical and physical environment affects enzyme activity~structure related to function • Metabolic order emerges from the cell’s regulatory systems and structural organization~regulation • The theme of emergent properties is manifest in the chemistry of life LABS • • • • • • AP Lab 2 Enzyme Catalysis Food Analysis-Testing Some Common Foods Lab (Flinn Scientific) Milk is a Natural Lab-Biology, Chemistry, and Nutrition (Flinn Scientific) Mystery Food Lab Little Miss Muffet Discovers Chy-Max Cheese Making Lab (Flinn Scientific) Student designed extension of cheese making lab UNIT II THE CELL (18 days) Reading + Topics Chapter 7 Tour of the Cell • Microscopes provide windows to the world of the cell • Cell biologists can isolate organelles to study their functions • A panoramic view of the cell 6 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The nucleus is a cell’s genetic library~relationship of structure to function Ribosomes build a cell’s proteins~regulation Many organelles are related through the endomembrane system The endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and performs many other biosynthetic functions~regulation The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and ships many products of the cell~regulation Lysosomes are digestive compartments~regulation Vacuoles have diverse functions in cell maintenance~regulation Peroxisomes consume oxygen in various metabolic functions~regulation Mitochondria and chloroplasts are the energy transformers of cells~regulation/energy transfer The cytoskeleton provides structural support and functions in cell motility~regulation Plant cells are encased by cell walls The extracellular matrix of animals cells functions in support, adhesion, movement and development~regulation Intercellular junctions integrate cells into higher levels of structure and function~regulation/relationship of structure to function The cell is a living unit greater than the sum of its parts~interdependence of nature Chapter 8 Membrane Structure and Function • Membrane models have evolved to fit new data: science as a process • A membrane is a fluid mosaic of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates~relationship of structure to function • A membrane’s molecular organization results in selective permeability~relationship of structure to function • Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane~regulation • Osmosis is the passive transport of water~regulation • Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake and loss~regulation • Specific proteins facilitate the passive transport of selected solutes~relationship of structure to function • Active transport is the pumping of solutes against their gradients~relationship of structure to function/regulation • Some ion pumps generate voltage across membranes 7 • • • In cotransport, a membrane protein couples the transport of one solute to another~relationship of structure to function Exocytosis and endocytosis transport large molecules~regulation Specialized membrane proteins transmit extracellular signals to the inside of the cell~interdependence in nature Chapter 11 The Reproduction of Cells • Cell division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair~relationship of structure to function/regulation • Bacteria reproduce by binary fission~regulation • The genome of a eukaryotic cell is organized into multiple chromosomes~regulation/relationship of structure to function • Mitosis alternates with interphase in the cell cycle~regulation • The mitotic spindle distributes chromosomes to daughter cells~regulation • Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm~regulation • External and internal cues control cell division~regulation • Cyclical changes in regulatory proteins function as a mitotic clock~regulation • Cancer cells escape from the controls on cell division~regulation Chapter 12 Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles • Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes~regulation • Like begets like, more or less: a comparison of asexual and sexual reproduction • Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles~regulation • Meiosis reduces chromosome number from diploid to haploid~regulation • Sexual life cycles produce genetic variation among offspring~evolution/continuity and change • Evolutionary adaptation depends on a population’s genetic variation~evolution/continuity and change LABS • AP Lab 1 • Surface Area to Volume Ratio Lab (using agar cubes from Ward’s Scientific) • AP Lab 3 Mitosis and Meiosis 8 UNIT III Cellular Energetics Reading + Topics (14 days) Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy • Cellular respiration and fermentation are catabolic pathways • Cells must recycle the ATP they use for work • Redox reactions release energy when electrons move closer to electronegative atoms • Electrons “fall” from organic molecules to oxygen during cellular respiration • The “fall” of electrons during respiration is stepwise, via NAD+ and an electron transport chain • Respiration is a cumulative function of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport • Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate~energy transfer • The Krebs cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules~energy transfer • The inner mitochondrial membrane couples electron transport to ATP synthesis • Cellular respiration generates many ATP molecules for each sugar molecule it oxidizes~energy transfer • Fermentation enables some cells to produce ATP without the help of oxygen • Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways • Feedback mechanisms control cellular respiration~regulation Chapter 10 Photosynthesis • Plants and other autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere~energy transfer/interdependence in nature • Chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in plants • Evidence that chloroplasts split water molecules enabled researchers to track atoms through photosynthesis: science as a process • The light reactions and the Calvin cycle cooperate in transforming light to the chemical energy of food~energy transfer • The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH~energy transfer 9 • • • LABS • • • • • The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates~evolution/regulation Photosynthesis is the biosphere’s metabolic foundation~interdependence in nature AP Lab 5 Cell Respiration Respirometer Lab with CBLs Elodea Lab Root Beer Fermentation Lab AP Lab 4 Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis TOPIC II UNIT IV Heredity (14 days) Reading + Topics Chapter 13 Mendel and the Gene Idea • Mendel brought an experimental and quantitative approach to genetics: science as a process • According to the law of segregation, the two alleles for a character are packaged into separate gametes~regulation • According to the law of independent assortment, each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently~regulation • Mendelian inheritance reflects rules of probability • Mendel discovered the particulate behavior of genes~science as a process • The relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely simple • Pedigree analysis reveals Mendelian patterns in human inheritance • Many human disorders follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance • Technology is providing new tools for genetic testing and counseling~science, technology and society Chapter 14 The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance • Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles~regulation • Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome: science as a process 10 • • • • • • • LABS • • • • • • • • • • • • Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome~regulation Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over cause genetic recombination~evolution Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosome’s genetic loci~science as a process The chromosomal basis of sex produces unique patterns of inheritance Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders~regulation The phenotypic effects of some genes depend on whether they were inherited from the mother or the father~regulation Extranuclear genes exhibit a non-Mendelian pattern of inheritance Investigation #4 How are laws of probability applied to genetics? Investigation #6 Who gets the money? Investigation #5 Pedigrees Investigation #8 Inheritance in Zea mays (corn) Investigation #9 Heredity and environment Traits and fates Karyotyping lab (NSF) Beaker Babies Lab (Tufts University) Gene mapping lab Genetic disorder research project Numerous Punnett squares AP Lab 7 Genetics of Organisms Wisconsin Fast Plants Lab UNIT V Molecular Genetics (16 days) Reading + Topics Chapter 15 • The search for the genetic material led to DNA: science as a process • Watson and Crick discovered the double helix by building models to conform to X-ray data: science as a process • During DNA replication, base pairing enables existing DNA strands to serve as templates for new complementary strands~regulation • A team of enzymes and other proteins functions in DNA replication~regulation 11 • Enzymes proofread DNA during its replication and repair damage to existing DNA~regulation Chapter 16 From Gene to Protein • The study of metabolic defects provided evidence that genes specify proteins: science as a process • Transcription and translation are the two main steps from gene to protein~regulation • In the genetic, a particular triplet of nucleotides specifies a certain amino acid~regulation • Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA~regulation • Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide~regulation • Some polypeptides have signal sequences that target them to specific destinations in the cell~regulation • Comparing protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes • Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription~evolution/regulation • A point mutation can affect the function of a protein~evolution/structure relates to function • What is a gene? Chapter 17 Microbial Models: The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria • Researchers discovered viruses by studying a plant disease: science as a process • Most viruses consist of a genome enclosed in a protein shell • Viruses can only reproduce within a host cell~regulation • Phages exhibit two reproductive cycles: the lytic and lysogenic cycles~regulation • Animal viruses are diverse in their modes of infection and mechanisms of replication~regulation • Plant viruses are serious agricultural pests~science, technology and society • Viroids and prions are infectious agents even simpler than viruses • Viruses may have evolved form other mobile genetic elements~evolution • The short generation span of bacteria facilitates their evolutionary adaptation to changing environments~evolution • Genetic recombination and transposition produce new bacterial strains~evolution/continuity and change 12 • The control of gene expression enables individual bacteria to adjust their metabolism to environmental change~regulation/continuity and change Chapter 18 Genome Organization and Expression in Eukaryotes • Each cell of a multicellular eukaryote expresses only a small fraction of its genome~regulation • The structural organization of chromatin sets coarse controls on gene expression~regulation • Noncoding sequences and gene duplications account for much of a eukaryotic genome~regulation/relationship of structure to function • The control of gene expression can occur at any step in the pathway from gene to functional protein~regulation • Chemical signals that help control gene expression include hormones~regulation • Chemical modification or relocation of DNA within a genome can alter gene expression~evolution/relationship of structure to function • Cancer can result from the abnormal expression of genes that regulate cell growth and division~regulation Chapter 19 DNA Technology • DNA technology makes it possible to clone genes for basic research and commercial applications~science, technology and society • The toolkit for DNA technology includes restriction enzymes, DNA vectors, and host organisms~science, technology and society • Recombinant DNA technology provides a means to transplant genes from one species into the genome of another~science, technology and society • Additional methods for analyzing and cloning nucleotide sequences increase the power of DNA technology~science, technology and society • DNA technology is catalyzing progress in many fields of biology~science, technology and society • The Human Genome Project is an enormous collaborative effort to map and sequence DNA~science, technology and society • DNA technology is reshaping the medical and pharmaceutical industries~science, technology and society • DNA technology offers forensic, environmental, and agricultural applications~science, technology and society 13 • LABS • • • • • • • • • • DNA technology raises important safety and ethical questions~science, technology and society Viral Spread Lab Investigation #12 DNA Structure Investigation #13 DNA Extraction from Cells Investigation #14 Simulating Protein Synthesis Investigation #15 Hidden Message Investigation #10 Mosaic Cats Investigation #18 Tools of the Genetic Engineer Investigation #24 DNA Profiling Investigation #25 Detection of Genetic Disease using RFLP Analysis AP Lab 6 Molecular Biology UNIT VI Mechanisms Reading + Topics of Evolution Chapter 20 Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life • Western culture resisted evolutionary views of life~science, technology and society • Theories of geological gradualism helped clear the path for evolutionary biologists~science as a process • Lamarck placed fossils in an evolutionary context~science as a process • Field research helped Darwin frame his view of life: science as a process • The Origin of Species developed two main points: the occurrence of evolution and natural selection as its mechanism • Evidence from many fields of biology validates the evolutionary view of life • What is theoretical about the Darwinian view of life? Chapter 21 The Evolution of Populations • The modern evolutionary synthesis integrated Darwinism and Mendelism: science as a process • A population has a genetic structure defined by its gene pool’s allele and genotype frequencies • The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a nonevolving population 14 • • • • • • • • • Microevolution is a generation-to-generation change in a population’s allele or genotype frequencies Genetic drift can cause evolution via chance fluctuation in a small population’s gene pool Gene flow can cause evolution by transferring alleles between populations Mutations can cause evolution by substituting one allele for another in a gene pool~evolution/continuity and change Nonrandom mating can cause evolution by shifting the frequencies of genotypes in a gene pool~evolution/continuity and change Natural selection can cause evolution via differential reproductive success among varying members of a population Genetic variation is the substrate for natural selection~evolution/continuity and change Natural selection is the mechanism of adaptive evolution Does evolution fashion perfect organisms? Chapter 24 Early Earth and the Origin of Life • Life on Earth originated between 3.5 and 4.0 billion years ago • The first cells may have originated by chemical evolution on a young Earth • Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers is a testable hypothesis: science as a process • Laboratory simulations of early Earth conditions have produced organic polymers • Protobionts can form by self-assembly • RNA was probably the first genetic material • The origin of hereditary information made Darwinian evolution possible • Debate about the origin of life abounds • Arranging the diversity of life into kingdoms is a work in progress LABS • Investigation #16 Using Comparative Genetics to Examine Evolutionary Relationships • Gene Frequency Lab using M &Ms Candy • AP Lab 8 Population Genetics and Evolution 15 TOPIC III UNIT VII Diversity of Organisms Reading + Topics Chapter 22 The Origin of Species • The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation • Reproductive barriers separate species • Geographical isolation can lead to the origin of species: allopatric speciation • A new species can originate in the geographical midst of the parent species: sympatric speciation • Population genetics can account for speciation • The theory of punctuated equilibrium has stimulated research on the tempo of speciation Chapter 23 Tracing Phylogeny: Macroevolution, the Fossil Record, and Systematics • The fossil record documents macroevolution • Paleontologists use a variety of methods to date fossils • What are the major questions about macroevolution? • Some evolutionary novelties are modified versions of older structures • Genes that control development play a major role in evolutionary novelty • Recognizing trends in the fossil record does not mean that macroevolution is goal-oriented • Macroevolution has a biogeographical basis in continental drift • The history of life is punctuated by mass extinctions followed by adaptive radiations of the survivors • Systematics connects biological diversity to phylogeny • Molecular biology provides powerful new tools for modern systematics~science, technology and society • Cladistics highlights the phylogenetic significance of systematics • Is a new evolutionary synthesis necessary? 16 Chapter 25 Prokaryotes and the Origins of Metabolic Diversity • They’re (almost) everywhere! • Archaea and Bacteria are the two main branches of prokaryotic evolution • The success of prokaryotic life is based on diverse adaptations of form and function • All major types of nutrition and metabolism evolved among prokaryotes • The evolution of prokaryotic metabolism was both cause and effect of changing environments of Earth • Molecular systematics is leading to a phylogenetic classification of prokaryotes • Prokaryotes continue to have an enormous ecological impact Chapter 26 The Origins of Eukaryotic Diversity • Eukaryotes originated by symbiosis among prokaryotes • Archezoans provide clues to the early evolution of eukaryotes • The diversity of protists represents “experiments” in the evolution of eukaryotic organization • Protistan taxonomy is in a state of flux • Diverse modes of locomotion and feeding evolved among protozoa • Funguslike protists have morphological adaptations and life cycles that enhance their ecological role as decomposers • Eukaryotic algae are key producers in most aquatic ecosystems • Systematists continue to refine their hypotheses about eukaryotic phylogeny • Multicellularity originated independently many times Chapter 27 Plants and the Colonization of Land • Structural and reproductive adaptations made colonization of land possible: an overview of plant evolution • Plants probably evolved from green algae called charophytes • Bryophytes are embryophytes that generally lack vascular tissue and require environmental water to reproduce~relationship of structure to function 17 • • • • • • The origin of vascular tissue was an evolutionary breakthrough in the colonization of land Ferns and other seedless plants dominated the Carboniferous “coal forests” Reproductive adaptations catalyzed the success of the seed plants~relationship of structure to function Gymnosperms began to dominate landscapes as climates became drier at the end of the Paleozoic era~relationship of structure to function The evolution of flowers and fruits contributed to the radiation of angiosperms Plant diversity is a nonrenewable resource~continuity and change/interdependence in nature Chapter 28 Fungi • Structural and life history adaptations equip fungi for an absorptive mode of nutrition~continuity and change/interdependence in nature • The three major divisions of fungi differ in details of reproduction • Molds, yeasts, lichens, and mycorrhizae represent unique lifestyles that evolved independently in all fungal divisions • Fungi have a tremendous ecological impact~interdependence in nature • Fungi and animals probably evolved from a common protistan ancestor~evolution Chapter 29 Invertebrates and the Origin of Animal Diversity • What is an animal? • Comparative anatomy and embryology provide clues to animal phylogeny~evolution • Sponges are sessile animals lacking true tissues • Cnidarians with ctenophores are radiate, diploblastic animals with gastrovascular cavities • Flatworms and other acoelomates are bilateral, triploblastic animals lacking body cavities • Rotifers, nematodes, and other pseudocoelomates have complete digestive tracts and blood vascular systems • Mollusks and annelids are among the major variations on the protostome body plan • The protostome phylum Arthopoda is the most successful group of animals ever to live 18 • • The deuterstome lineage includes echinoderms and chordates The Cambrian explosion produced all the major animal body plans Chapter 30 The Vertebrate Genealogy • Vertebrates belong to the phylum Chordata • Invertebrate chordates provide clues to the origin of vertebrates • The evolution vertebrate characteristics is associated with increased size and activity • Vertebrate diversity and phylogeny • Agnathans are jawless vertebrates • Placoderms were armored fishes with jaws and paired fins • Sharks and their relatives have adaptations for powerful swimming • Bony fishes are the most abundant and diverse vertebrates • Amphibians are the oldest class of tetrapods • The evolution of the amniotic egg expanded the success of vertebrates on land • A reptilian heritage is evident in all amniotes • Birds began as flying reptiles • Mammals diversified extensively in the wake of the Cretaceous extinctions • Primate evolution provides a context for understanding human origins • Humanity one very young twig on the vertebrate tree Labs • Streaking agar plate and use of inoculating loop • Bacteria in Milk (Flinn Scientific) UNIT VIII Structure Reading + Topics and Function of Plants and Animals (57 days) Chapter 31 Plant Structure and Growth • Plant biology reflects the major themes in the study of life • A plant’s root and shoot systems are evolutionary adaptations to living on land • The major types of plant cells are organized into three major tissue systems • Meristems generate cells for new organs throughout the lifetime of a plant • Apical meristems extend roots and shoots 19 • Lateral meristems add girth to stems and roots Chapter 32 Transport in Plants • The traffic of water and solutes occurs on cellular, organ and whole-plant levels • Roots absorb water and minerals from soil • The ascent of xylem sap depends mainly on transpiration and the physical properties of water • Guard cells mediate the transpiration-photosynthesis compromise • A bulk-flow mechanism translocates phloem sap from sugar sources to sugar sinks Chapter 33 Plant Nutrition • Plants require at least seventeen essential nutrients • The symptoms of a mineral deficiency depend on the function and mobility of the element • Soil characteristics are key environmental factors in terrestrial ecosystems • Soil conservation is one step toward sustainable agriculture~science, technology and society • The metabolism of soil bacteria makes nitrogen available to plants • Improving the protein yield of crops is a major goal of agricultural research~science, technology and society, science as a process • Predation and symbiosis are evolutionary adaptations that enhance plant nutrition~interdependence in nature Chapter 34 Plant Reproduction and Development • Sporophyte and gametophyte generations alternate in the life cycles of plants • Male and female gametophytes develop within anthers and ovaries, respectively • Pollination brings female and male gametophytes together • The ovule develops into a seed containing a sporophyte embryo and a supply of nutrients • The ovary develops into a fruit adapted for seed dispersal • Evolutionary adaptations in the process of germination increase the probability that seedlings will survive • Many plants can clone themselves by asexual reproduction • Vegetative reproduction of plants is common in agriculture 20 • • • • • Sexual and asexual reproduction re complementary in the life histories of many plants Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body The cytoskeleton guides the geometry of cell division and expansion Cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression Mechanisms of pattern formation determine the location and tissue organization of plant organs Chapter 35 Control Systems in Plants • Research on how plants grow toward light led to the discovery of plant hormones: science as a process • Plant hormones help coordinate growth, development, and responses to environmental stimuli~regulation • Tropisms orient the growth of plant organs toward or away from stimuli~regulation • Turgor movements are relatively rapid, reversible plant responses • Biological clocks control circadian rhythms in plants and other eukaryotes~regulation • Photoperiodism synchronizes many plant responses to changes of season~regulation • Phytochrome functions as a photoreceptor in many plant responses to light and photoperiod~regulation • Control systems enable plants to cope with environmental stress~regulation/interdependence in nature • Signal-transduction pathways mediate the responses of plant cells to environmental and hormonal stimuli~regulation/interdependence in nature Chapter 36 An Introduction to Animal Structure and Function • The functions of animal tissues and organs are correlated with their structures~relationship of structure to function • Bioenergetics is fundamental to all animal functions~energy transfer • An animal’s size and shape affect its interactions with the external environment~interdependence in nature/relationship of structure to function • Homeostatic mechanisms regulate an animal’s internal environment~regulation 21 Chapter 37 Animal Nutrition • Diets and feeding mechanisms vary extensively among animals • Ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination are the four main stages of food processing~energy transfer/relationship of structure to function • Digestion occurs in food vacuoles, gastrovascular cavities, and alimentary canals~ energy transfer/relationship of structure to function • A tour of the mammalian digestive system • Vertebrate digestive systems exhibit many evolutionary adaptations associated with diet • An adequate diet provides fuel, carbon skeletons for biosynthesis, and essential nutrients~energy transfer Chapter 38 Circulation and Gas Exchange • Transport systems functionally connect body cells with the organs of exchange~relationship of structure to function • Most invertebrates have a gastrovascular cavity or a circulatory system for internal transport • Diverse adaptations of a cardiovascular system have evolved in vertebrates~evolution/relationship of structure to function • Rhythmic pumping of the human heart drives blood through pulmonary and systemic circuits • The lymphatic system returns fluid to the blood and aids in body defense • Blood is a connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma • Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States and many other developed nations~science, technology and society • Gas exchange supplies oxygen for cellular respiration and disposes of carbon dioxide~relationship of structure to function • Gills are respiratory adaptations of most aquatic animals~evolution • Tracheae are respiratory adaptations of insects~evolution • Lungs are the respiratory adaptation of most terrestrial vertebrates~ evolution Chapter 39 The Body’s Defenses • Nonspecific mechanisms provide general barriers to infection 22 • • • • • • • • • • The immune system defends the body against specific invaders~regulation Clonal selection of lymphocytes is the cellular basis for immunological specificity and diversity Memory cells function in secondary immune responses~regulation/relationship of structure to function Molecular markers on cell surfaces function in self/nonself recognition~regulation/relationship of structure to function In the humoral response, B cells defend against pathogens in body fluids by generating specific antibodies~regulation/relationship of structure to function In the cell-mediated response, T cells defend against intracellular pathogens~regulation/relationship of structure to function Complement proteins participate in both nonspecific and specific defenses The immune system’s capacity to distinguish self for nonself is critical in blood transfusions and transplantation Abnormal immune function leads to disease states~science, technology and society Invertebrates exhibit a rudimentary immune system Chapter 40 Controlling the Internal Environment • Homeostatic mechanisms protect an animal’s internal environment from harmful fluctuations~regulation • Cells require a balance between water uptake and loss • Osmoregulation depends on transport epithelia~regulation/relationship of structure to function • Tubular systems function in osmoregulation and excretion in many invertebrates • The kidneys of most vertebrates are compact organs with many excretory tubules • The kidney’s transport epithelia regulate the composition of blood~regulation/relationship of structure to function • The water-conserving ability of the mammalian kidney is a key terrestrial adaptation~evolution • Diverse adaptations of the vertebrate kidney have evolved in different habitats~evolution • An animal’s nitrogenous wastes are correlated with its phylogeny and habitat 23 • • • • • Thermoregulation maintains body temperature within a range conducive to metabolism~regulation Ectotherms derive body heat mainly from their surroundings and endotherms derive it mainly from metabolism Thermoregulation involves physiological and behavior adjustments~regulation Comparative physiology reveals diverse mechanisms of thermoregulation~evolution Regulatory systems interact in the maintenance of homeostasis~regulation Chapter 41 Chemical Signals in Animals • A variety of chemical signals coordinates body functions~regulation • Hormone binding to specific receptors triggers signaling mechanisms at the cellular level~regulation • Many chemical signals are relayed and amplified by second messengers and protein kinases • Invertebrate control systems often integrate endocrine and nervous system functions • The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the vertebrate endocrine system • The vertebrate endocrine system coordinates homeostasis and regulates growth, development, and reproduction~regulation • The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally, chemically, and functionally related~regulation/interdependence in nature Chapter 42 Animal Reproduction • Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom • In sexual reproduction, gametes unite in the external environment or within the female • Diverse reproductive systems have evolved in the animal kingdom • Human reproduction involves intricate anatomy and complex behavior • Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve meiosis but differ in three significant ways • A complex interplay of hormones regulates reproduction~regulation • Embryonic and fetal development occur during pregnancy in humans and other placental mammals • Contraception prevents pregnancy 24 • New technologies offer help for reproductive problems~science, technology and society Chapter 43 Animal Development • From egg to organism, an animal’s form develops gradually: the concept of epigenesis~regulation • Embryonic development involves cell division, differentiation, and morphogenesis~regulation • Fertilization activates the egg and brings together the nuclei of sperm and egg • Cleavage partitions the zygote into many smaller cells~regulation • Gastrulation rearranges the blastula top form a three-layered embryo with a primitive gut~regulation • Organogenesis forms the organs of the animal body from the three embryonic germ layer~regulation • Amniote embryos develop in a fluid-filled sac within a shell or uterus • The developmental fate of cells depends on cytoplasmic environment, location, and cell-cell interactions~interdependence in nature • Pattern formation in Drosophila is controlled by a hierarchy of gene activations~regulation • Comparisons of genes that control development reveal homology in animals as diverse as flies and mammals~evolution Chapter 44 Nervous Systems • Nervous systems perform the three overlapping functions of sensory output, integration, and motor output~regulation/relationship of structure to function • The nervous system is composed of neurons and supporting cells • Impulses are action potentials, electrical signals propagated along neuronal membranes • Chemical or electrical communication between cells occurs at synapses~regulation • Invertebrate nervous systems are highly diverse • The vertebrae nervous system is a hierarchy of structural and functional complexity • The human brain is a major research frontier~science, technology and society 25 Chapter 45 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms • Sensory receptors detect changes in the external and internal environment~regulation/relationship of structure to function • Photoreceptors contain light-absorbing visual pigments~ regulation/relationship of structure to function • Hearing and balance are related in most animals~ regulation/relationship of structure to function • The interacting senses of taste and smell enable animals to detect many different chemicals~ regulation/relationship of structure to function/interdependence in nature • Movement is a hallmark of animals • Muscles move skeletal parts by contracting~relationship of structure to function LABS • • • • • • • AP Lab 9 Transpiration AP Lab 10 Physiology of the Circulatory System AP Lab 11 Animal Behavior Fast Food Lab Donner Party Lab Anorexia Lab “Madeline” (BSCS) Fetal Pig Dissection UNIT IX ECOLOGY (18 days) Reading + Topics Chapter 46 An Introduction to Ecology: Distribution and Adaptations of Organisms • Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments~interdependence in nature • Basic ecology provides a scientific context for evaluating environmental issues~science, technology and society • Ecological research ranges from the adaptations of organisms to the dynamics of ecosystems~interdependence in nature • Climate and other abiotic factors are important determinants of the biosphere’s distribution of organisms~interdependence in nature • The costs and benefits of homeostasis affect an organism’s responses to environmental variation~interdependence in nature/continuity and change 26 • • • The response mechanisms of organisms are related to environmental grain and the time scale of environmental variation~interdependence in nature The geographical distribution of terrestrial biomes is based mainly on regional variations in climate Aquatic ecosystems, consisting of freshwater and marine biomes, occupy the largest part of the biosphere Chapter 47 Population Ecology • Two important characteristics of any population are its density and the spacing of individuals~interdependence in nature/continuity and change • Demography is the study of factors that affect birth and death rates in a population~interdependence in nature/continuity and change • The traits that affect an organism’s schedule of reproduction and death make up its life history~regulation • A mathematical model for exponential growth describes an idealized population in an unlimited environment • A logistic model of population growth incorporates the concept of carrying capacity • Both density-dependent and density-independent factors can affect population growth~interdependence in nature /continuity and change • The human population has been growing exponentially for centuries, but will not be able to do so indefinitely~interdependence in nature/continuity and change/science, technology and society Chapter 48 Community Ecology • The interactive and individualistic hypotheses pose alternative explanations of community structure: science as a process • Community interactions can provide strong selection factors in evolution~interdependence in nature /continuity and change/evolution • Interspecific interactions may have positive, negative, or neutral effects on a population’s density~interdependence in nature /continuity and change/evolution 27 • • • • • • • • Predation and parasitism are +/- interactions~interdependence in nature Interspecific competitions are -/- interactions~interdependence in nature Commensalisms and mutualism are +/0 and +/+ interactions, respectively~interdependence in nature A community’s structure is defined by the activities and abundance of its diverse organisms~interdependence in nature The factors that structure communities include competition, predation, and environmental patchiness~interdependence in nature Succession is the sequence of changes in a community after a disturbance~interdependence in nature/evolution Biogeography complements community ecology in the analysis of species distribution Lessons from community ecology and biogeography can help preserve biodiversity~science, technology and society Chapter 50 Behavior • Behavior is what an animal does and how it does it~ interdependence in nature • Behavior ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypotheses: science as a process • A behavior has both an ultimate and a proximate cause~ interdependence in nature • Certain stimuli trigger innate behaviors called fixed action patterns~ interdependence in nature • Learning is experience-based modification of behavior~ interdependence in nature • Rhythmic behaviors synchronize an animal’s activities with daily and seasonal changes in the environment~interdependence in nature • Environmental cues guide animal movement~interdependence in nature • Behavioral ecologists are using cost/benefit analysis to study foraging behavior~interdependence in nature • Sociobiology places social behavior in an evolutionary context~ interdependence in nature/evolution • Competitive social behaviors often represent contests for resources~ interdependence in nature • Mating behavior relates directly to an animal’s fitness~ interdependence in nature/regulation 28 • • • Social interactions depend on diverse modes of communication~ interdependence in nature The concept of inclusive fitness can account for most altruistic behavior~ interdependence in nature Human sociobiology connects biology to the humanities and social sciences LABS • AP Lab 12 DO and Aquatic Primary Productivity • Various labs from Water Quality with CBLs (Vernier) 29