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Chapter 3 SECTION 1: THE GEOSPHERE The Earth as a System The Earth consists of rock, air water, and living things that all interact with each other. This system is divided into 4 parts: Geosphere (rock) Atmosphere (air) Hydrosphere (water) Biosphere (living things) The Geosphere the solid part of the earth that contains all rock, soil, and loose rocks on earth’s surface. Most of the geosphere is in the earth’s interior. The geosphere Earth’s interior Seismic waves travel through earth’s interior during an earthquake and help us learn of the interior. The earth is made up of different layers and scientists have inferred what each layer is made of. The geosphere (compositional Layers) 1. Earth’s interior (3 layers) Crust : light elements like silicone, <1% of earth’s mass, thin 4-20 km 1. 2. Mantle: 64% mass, 2900 km thick 1. 3. Outermost layer Middle layer Core : dense elements like iron, 35% mass, 3400 km thick 1. Center of earth The geosphere (Physical Layers) 1. Lithosphere: 15-300 km thick, solid. This layer is divided into tectonic plates. 2. Asthenosphere : 250 km thick, slow moving semi-liquid, allows tectonic plates to move on top of it. 3. Mesosphere: middle sphere, lower layer of the mantle 4. Outer core: liquid nickel and iron 5. Inner core: solid nickel and iron at center of earth Plate Tectonics (Lithosphere) Plate Boundaries: plates collide, move away from or slide past one another, causing volcanos, earthquakes and mountains. Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building: where they collide, one is pushed up creating a mountain. Example of mountain formations The Himalaya mountains in south central formed when the Eurasian tectonic plate and the Indian tectonic plate began to push into each other 50 million years ago. Earthquakes Shaking of Earth’s surface Fault: a break in earth’s crust where tectonic plates move Magnitude: measures earthquakes with Richter scale Where do they occur? Near San plate boundaries Andreas Fault in California A significant hazard: hard to predict Volcanoes Volcanoes are melted rock forming a mountain on land or sea Local effects Can Ash destroy local economies can break buildings Global effects: large eruptions. Ash and gasses can affect the climate. The sky turns black blocks sun. hotter or colder Erosion The removal and transport of surface material Water: rivers move nutrients and form gorges Wind: moves soil and breaks soft rocks 3.1 Objectives - Review 1. Describe the composition and structure of the Earth. 2. Describe the Earth’s tectonic plates. 3. Explain the main cause of earthquakes and their effects. 4. Identify the relationship between volcanic eruptions and climate change. 5. Describe how wind and water alter the Earth’s surface Chapter 4 The Organization of Life 4.2 Evolution 4.2 Evolution A. Evolution by Natural Selection 1. Charles Darwin: environment influences which individuals survive and reproduce 2. Natural Selection a) Def: the process by which individuals that have favorable variations and are better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce more successfully than less well adapted individuals do. b) Over many generations, natural selection causes the characteristics of populations to change. 4.2 Evolution A. Evolution by Natural Selection c) Evolution is a change in the characteristics of a population over time. Ex i. population of deer that became isolated in a cold area. ii. Some of the deer had genes for thicker, warmer fur. These deer were more likely to survive, and their young with thick fur were more likely to survive to reproduce. 4.2 Evolution 4.2 Evolution 3. Coevolution a) Def: two species evolving together b) Ex: Hawaiian honeycreeper, which has a long, curved beak to reach nectar at the base of a flower. The flower has structures that ensure that the bird gets some pollen on its head. c) honeycreeper’s adaptation; long, curved beak. d) The plant has two adaptations sweet nectar, which attracts the birds, flower structure that forces pollen onto the bird’s head when the bird sips nectar. 4.2 Evolution B. Evolution by Artificial Selection 1. Def: selective breeding of organisms, by humans, for specific desirable characteristics. 2. Dogs have been bred for certain characteristics. 3. Fruits, grains, and vegetables are also produced by artificial selection. Humans save seeds from the largest, and sweetest fruits. By selecting for these traits, farmers direct the evolution of crop plants to produce larger, sweeter fruit. 4.2 Evolution C. Evolution of Resistance 1. Def: ability of an organism to tolerate a chemical or disease-causing agent. 2. An organism may be resistant to a chemical when it contains a gene that allows it to break down a chemical into harmless substances. 3. Humans promote the evolution of resistant populations by trying to control pests and bacteria with chemicals. 4.2 Activity: How are populations different? Table 1: Shoe Size Table 2: Hair- curly or straight Table 3: Height Then: Make Graphs: What kind? Table 2: Pie Tables 1 & 3: Shoe Size, Height 5.2 The Cycling of Materials Short-term and long-term process of carbon cycle – The Carbon cycle is a process by which carbon is cycled between the atmosphere, land, water, and organisms. – Carbon enters a short term cycle (fast) in an ecosystem when plants convert CO2 in the atmosphere into carbohydrates (sugar) during photosynthesis. – Consumers eat plants and undergo cellular respiration to break down the sugars into CO2 again – Carbon enters the cycle via a long term cycle (slow) where carbon is converted from carbon to carbonates which make up bones and shells. Its takes a long time for these to break down. • Can form deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas underground as fossil fuels. HOW TO HUMANS AFFECT THE CARBON CYCLE • WE BURN FOSSIL FUELS RELEASING CARBON DIOXIDE • CARS, FACTORIES, POWER PLANTS USE FOSSIL FUELS • CARS AND TRUCKS • AMOUNT OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN ATMOSPHERE HAS INCREASED LEADING TO GLOBAL WARMING AND AN OVERALL INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE • SOME CO2 GETS DISSOLVED IN THE OCEAN • HUMANS SPEED UP THE CARBON CYCLE THE CARBON CYCLE THE CARBON CYCLE Exists in the air Living things use carbon breathing Fuel that is not solid or liquid Carbon containing liquid Burning carbon containing substances plants fix carbon Slowly breaking down Carbon in the water Tiny dead animals Solid fuel 5.2 The Nitrogen Cycle – The Nitrogen cycle is a process in which Nitrogen is cycled between the atmosphere, bacteria and other organisms. – Only nitrogen fixing bacteria can change N2 (Atmospheric nitrogen) to NH4 (ammonia) – They live in the roots of legumes(peas, beans) and in the soil. DECOMPOSERS OF THE NITROGEN CYCLE • DECOMPOSERS IN THE NITROGEN CYCLE BREAKDOWN WASTES, SUCH AS URINE, DUNG, LEAVES, DECAYING PLANTS AND ANIMALS. • THE NITROGEN IS RETURNED TO THE SOIL • BACTERIA TRANSFORM THE NITROGEN INTO NITROGEN GAS • NITROGEN GAS IS RETURNED TO THE ATMOSPHERE 5.2 The Cycling of Materials – The Phosphorus cycle is the movement of phosphorous between the environment and organisms • Usually comes from erosion of rocks • Plants absorb the phosphorus from the soil, then consumers eat them • Also recycled like nitrogen when matter decomposes. • Ends as sediment in sea 5.2 Fertilizers – People apply an excess of fertilizers to have optimum growth of plants. – Fertilizer has excess phosphorus and nitrogen – Runoff can enter terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems • • Causes algal blooms When the algae die and are eaten by animals and bacteria, all the oxygen is used and everything there dies Chapter 6 Biomes 6.1 What is a Biome? • Describe how plants determine the name of a biome. • Explain how temperature and precipitation determine which plants grow in an area. • Explain how latitude and altitude affect which plants grow in an area. 6.1 What is a Biome? 6.1 What is a Biome? • Biomes are large regions characterized by a specific type of climate and certain types of plant and animal communities. • Plants in a biome are adapted to survive in that biome • Animals in a biome are adapted to survive off the plants • Described by their vegetation 6.1 What is a Biome? 6.1 What is a Biome? – Biomes and Climate: Climate decides what kind of plants can grow. It is the average weather condition in an area over a long period of time. • Temperature and Precipitation – limit what can grow b/c plants need water and heat – Low rain/temp = few plants – High rain/temp = many plants – So you expect many plants at a warm, rainy place. 6.1 What is a Biome? 6.1 What is a Biome? • Latitude and Altitude – Latitude (N to S): high latitude = few plants – Altitude (sea to mountains): high altitude = few plants – So at the equator at sea level, you can expect many plants Chapter 6 Biomes 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 1. Savanna a) Plants i. Plants must be able to live a long time with no water ii. Plants have horizontal roots to reach a large area of water iii. Plants are tall and vertical to minimize sun exposure iv. Some plants lose leaves to die in the dry season v. Trees/shurbs that don’t die have protection against animals (ex thorns) 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 1. Savanna b) Animals i. Mostly grazing herbivores-they migrate to find grass ii. Give birth in the rainy season b/c there is food iii. Have adaptations for vegetation at different heights. » Gazelles eat grass » Rhinos eat shrubs » Giraffes eat trees 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 2. Temperate grasslands: Warm; moderate rain a) Plants i. Only one layer, but diverse ii. Shrubs only live near extra water, like on river banks iii. Winter is cold, so plants die back to only roots in winter. iv. Cold winter also means fertile soil because decomposition is slow v. Dense root systems can survive fires and droughts vi. Most grasslands are now crop fields 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 2. Temperate grasslands b) Animals i. Large grazing animals (ex bison, pronghorn, elephant) have flat teeth for chewing grass ii. Smaller animals often burrow for protection (burrowing owl, prairie dogs) 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 2. Temperate grasslands c) Threats i. Farming causes erosion b/c crop plants don’t have the strong roots ii. Overgrazing by cows(meat or dairy) causes grass to die as well. 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 3. Chaparral: temperate shrubland found in Mediterranean climate a) Plants i. Must survive the cool, rainy winters and dry hot summers ii. Small evergreen shrubs (olive trees, bay and manzanita) iii. Leaf: small and strong to keep H2O iv. Annual plants which reseed every year v. Well adapted regrow after fires, because fires kill the trees which would block their sunlight 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes A. Grasslands 3. Chaparral: temperate shrubland found in Mediterranean climate b) Animals: well adapted for camouflage c) Threats: human development. Mediterranean climate is awesome and we all want to live in it. 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes B. Deserts: driest places on earth 1. Plants a) All adapted to acquire and store water i. Succulents (cactus) have thick stems to store water and waxy coatings to prevent water loss ii. Roots stay at the surface b/c water is never deep. iii. Many only grow leaves when there is water 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes B. Deserts: driest places on earth 2. Animals a) Reptiles have thick skin with scales to prevent water loss b) Some birds build nests in cactuses to avoid predators c) Most are nocturnal to avoid the hot sun 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes C. Tundra: northern arctic regions; cold and dry. Permafrost keeps the deep soil always frozen 1. Vegetation a) Mosses and lichen grow in the summer on the rocks b) Thin soil, so small plants with shallow roots c) Plants are short to avoid the wind / be close to the warm ground 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes C. Tundra: northern arctic regions; cold and dry. Permafrost keeps the deep soil always frozen 2. Animals a) Birds fly here to breed b/c they eat the bugs, worms, plants w/out competition b) Caribou live here and migrate throughout the tundra for food c) Wolves live here and eat caribou and smaller animals d) Many grow white hair for the winter 6.3 Grassland, Desert and Tundra Biomes C. Tundra: northern arctic regions; cold and dry. Permafrost keeps the deep soil always frozen 3. Threats a) Fragile because growth is slow b) Until recently undisturbed, now interrupted by pipe lines for oil c) Oil spills cause huge