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Subject pronouns
I
You
He/She/It
We
You
They
I speak English.
You go to school every day.
He eats pizza, but she does not. It tastes good.
We live in Canada.
You are all new students.
They study in room 306.
Object pronouns
Me
You
Him/Her/It
Us
You
Them
The students speak with me.
Your classmate works with you.
Hocine worked with Min, but Nicolai didn’t work with
her.
Marcelo teaches all of us.
I teach all of you.
Fatima and Hasna sit together. Fawzy sits with them.
The verb “to be”
I am (I’m)
You are (You’re)
He/She/It is (He’s/She’s/It’s)
We are (We’re)
You are (You’re)
They are (They’re)
Asking yes/no questions with “be”
Place the conjugated verb “be” before the subject. We
use “be” for three types of questions:
 Questions about adjectives and emotions.
 Questions about identity, nationality, status.
 Questions in the progressive/continuous tenses.
I am happy. Are you happy?
S V
O
V S
O
Yes. OK
Yes, I am. OK
Yes, I am (I’m) happy. OK
Yes, I happy. X
Yes, I’m. X
No. OK
No, I am (I’m) not. OK
No, I am (I’m) not happy. OK
The verb “to do”
I do
You do
He/She/It does
We do
You do
They do
Asking yes/no questions with “do”
Place “do” at the beginning of the sentence. Place the
verb after the subject. We use “do” for these types of
questions:
 Questions about preferences or actions.
 Questions in the simple tense (aren’t
progressive/continuous or perfect).
I like pizza. Do you like pizza?
S V O A S V O
Yes. OK
Yes, I do. OK
Yes, I like pizza. OK
Yes, I do like pizza. OK, used for confirmation/emphasis
Yes, I like. X
No. OK
No, I do not (don’t). OK
No, I do not (don’t) like pizza. OK
No, I do not (don’t) like. X
The verb “to be”
I am (I’m)
You are (You’re)
He/She/It is (He’s/She’s/It’s)
Possessive adjectives
My _____
Your _____
His/Her/Its _____
We are (We’re)
You are (You’re)
They are (They’re)
Our _____
Your _____
Their _____
Possessive adjectives need to indicate the proper noun
after being used.
Possessive pronouns
Mine
Yours
His/Hers
Ours
Yours
Theirs
Possessive pronouns do not indicate the proper noun
after; the proper noun can come before.
This is my classroom.
These are your keys.
Those are his books.
This (classroom) is mine.
These (keys) are yours.
Those (books) are his.
That is not our house.
That (house) isn’t ours.
This is not your school.
This (school) is not yours.
Room 302 is their classroom, not ours.
Room 302 is theirs, not ours.
This (singular close)
That (singular far)
These (plural close)
Those (plural far)
-> O
->
-> OO
->
O
OO
/THIS/
/THAT/
/THEEZE/
/THOZ/
Wh- questions and answers with “be”
Where’s your friend?
He’s in class.
Who’s Sun-hee?
She’s my classmate.
What’s Seoul like?
It’s a very exciting city.
Where are you and Luisa from? We’re from Brazil.
How are your classes?
They’re interesting.
What are your classmates like? They’re really nice.
What is he like? = Personality, character traits
“He is a nice man, although he is a little shy.”
What does he look like? = Physical appearance
“He is tall, thin, young, and has black hair.”
What does he like? = Preferences
“He likes soccer, cheese, and his family.”
To
Use to in these cases:
 Destination
“We’re going to Paris.”
 What time it is
“It’s a quarter to 2.”
 Distance
“It’s about ten miles from my house to the
university.”
 Comparing
“I prefer sleeping to working.”
 Giving
“I gave the book to my sister.”
 Motive/Reason – with verb
“I came here to see you.”
For
Use for in these cases:
 Benefits
“Yogurt is good for your digestion.”
 Period of time
“We’ve lived here for 2 years.”
 Schedule
“I made an appointment for May 3.”
 Agree with
“Are you for or against the development of nuclear
weapons?”
 Doing something to help someone
“Could you carry these books for me?”
 Motive/Reason – with noun
“Let’s go out for a drink.”
 Function – with verb (-ing form)
“A ladle is a big spoon used for serving soup.”
Of
Use of in these cases:
 Belonging to, relating to, or connected with
“The secret of this game is to play aggressive.”
“I always dreamed of being like my mother.”
 Reference
“I got married in the summer of 2012.”
“This is a picture of my family.”
 An amount or number
“I drank three cups of milk.”
“He got a perfect score of 5 on his writing
assignment.”
Notice that to and for can be used for a motive/reason,
but to is always with an infinitive verb, and for is always
with a noun:
 I came to New York to work.
 I came to New York for a new job.
Yes/No questions and short answers with “be”
Are you free?
Yes, I am.
No, I’m not.
Is David from Mexico?
Yes, he is.
No, he’s not. / No, he isn’t.
Is Beth’s class in the morning?
Yes, it is.
No, it’s not. / No, it isn’t.
Are you and Beth in the same class?
Yes, we are.
No, we’re not. / No, we aren’t.
Are your classes interesting?
Yes, they are.
No, they’re not. / No, they aren’t.
Summary of verb tenses
Simple present: Used to indicate actions that happen
often, regularly, or with expected frequency.
Conjugation is subject + verb.
 I wake up at 8 AM.
 We go to school every day.
 Before he exercises, he stretches.
Present progressive/continuous: Used to indicate actions
happening at this very moment in the present.
Conjugation is subject + be + verb-ing.
 She is eating lunch.
 You are walking down the street.
 They are speaking to the President.
Present perfect: Used to indicate an action that
happened at an unspecified time in the past before the
present. Conjugation is subject + has/have + participle
verb.
 Hugo has drunk the wine.
 Justin Trudeau has met Barack Obama.
 I have seen this movie before.
Present perfect progressive/continuous: Used to indicate
an action that started in the past and continues until the
present, usually with a time. Conjugation is subject +
has/have + been + verb-ing.
 We have been waiting for you.
 Megan has been practicing the piano for years.
 They have been studying for two hours.
Simple past: Used to indicate actions that finished in the
past. Conjugation for regular verbs is subject + verb-ed.
 The teacher cleaned the classroom.
 The computer turned off.
 Donald prepared his lesson.
Past progressive/continuous: Used to indicate actions
that, at a certain point in the past, were happening.
Conjugation is subject + was/were + verb-ing.
 At 6 PM yesterday, I was learning English.
 I was sleeping! What do you want?
 Many people were watching the show last night.
Past perfect: Used to indicate an action that was
completed before another action in the past.
Conjugation is subject + had + participle verb.
 I had studied drawing before I began to study
painting.
 He had exercised before going to the doctor.
 You had e-mailed the teacher before he called you.
Past perfect progressive/continuous: Used to indicate a
past continuous action occurring when second past
action occurred. Conjugation is subject + had + been +
verb-ing.
 Olga had been sleeping when the phone rang.
 We had been eating before our guests arrived.
 Ahmed had been praying when his children left
school.
Simple future: Used to indicate future actions.
Conjugation is subject + will + verb or subject + be +
going to + verb.
 Tomorrow he will call you.
 They are going to visit their family.
 Carlos is going to write an e-mail.
Future progressive/continuous: Used to indicate future
actions that will happen at a specific time. Conjugation is
subject + will + be + verb-ing or subject + be + going to
+ be + verb-ing.
 Next month I will be finishing my course.
 We are going to be visiting the Grand Canyon in
2018.
 Don’t call her at 9 PM, she is going to be cooking
dinner.
Future perfect: Used to indicate a future action that will
be completed by the time another future action occurs.
Conjugation is subject + will + have + participle verb or
subject + be + going to + have + participle verb.
 Irving will have cleaned his room before he plays
with his friends.
 I am going to have finished this course before I can
graduate.
 You will have done the task before we continue.
Future perfect progressive/continuous: Used to indicate
a future continuous action that will be happening when
another future action occurs. Conjugation is subject +
will + have + been + verb-ing or subject + be + going to
+ have + been + verb-ing.
 Dan will have been playing poker for two hours by
the time he leaves the casino.
 They are going to have been waiting for thirty
minutes when we arrive.
 I will have been writing a poem for three months
before I’m happy with it.
Prepositions of Place
We use “where” to ask questions about location.
 Where is the supermarket?
 Where are the other students?
 Where’s the bank?
We answer with prepositions of place to tell the location
of people and things.
 My school is in Montreal.
 The bus station is on Main Street.
 We are sitting next to each other.
The prepositions of place are…
 In / Inside – City, state, country, continent, or within.
o We are in Room 301.
o They study English in Montreal.
o The money is inside the safe.
 On – Street, floor, or touching a surface.
o The school is on De Bullion Street.
o The shop is on the second floor.
o My keys are on the table.
 At – Street address or familiar place.
o I live at 4516 Saint-Michel Road.
o Jerry isn’t at work, he’s at home.
 Next to – Adjacent, immediately near each other.
o I am sitting next to my friend.
o The city of Rio de Janeiro is next to the ocean.
 Near / Close to – Nearby, a short distance away.
o The notebook is near my hand.
o We are close to the store, about 3 minutes away.
 Far (from) – Not close, a long distance away.
o They live very far from here.
o We won’t be at the party early. The house is far.
 Between – In the middle of.
o I sit between two other people.
o The computer monitor is between two speakers.
 Across (from) – In front of, but over something
separating the two locations.
o Gatineau is across the river from Ottawa.
o We live across the street.
 In front of – Ahead of.
o The teacher is standing in front of the classroom.
o There are people sitting in front of me.
 Behind / In back of – In the rear of.
o The door is behind the students.
o The restrooms are in back of the restaurant.
 Over / Above – Positioned higher than another
object.
o There is a clock over the blackboard.
o Satellites fly above airplanes.
 Under / Below – Positioned lower than another
object.
o Moles and worms live under the ground.
o Your backpack is below your desk.
Prepositions of Time
We use “when” to ask questions about time.
 When is your mother arriving?
 When are they going to finish the project?
 When’s the birthday party?
We answer with prepositions of time to tell the time of
events and actions.
 My birthday is in September.
 Don’t forget, we have a test on Monday.
 Our class begins at 5:30 PM.
The prepositions of time are…
 In – Months, years, centuries, seasons, long periods
of time, and mornings, afternoons, and evenings.
o The election is in October.
o She was born in 1975.
o There were many wars in the 20th century.
o I don’t like Montreal in the winter.
o In ancient times, Rome ruled much of the world.
o I wake up early in the morning, but my sister
wakes up in the afternoon.
o He doesn’t like to work in the evening.
 On – Week days, calendar dates, and holidays.
o We’re twins. We were born on December 2nd.
o I’ll see you on Tuesday!
o There will be celebrations on St. Jean-Baptiste
Day.
 At – Precise times and nighttime.
o Break begins at 7:30 PM and ends at 8:00 PM.
o Harris loves to stay up at night.
 From & Until – Starting at a certain time (from), and
continuing through and ending at a certain time
(until). Usually used together.
o I have work from 7 AM until 5 PM.
o From now on, I will go to the gym every day.
o I stay up until midnight most weekends.
 Around – At a certain time, but not exact.
o She usually arrives around 8 AM, but never at 8.
o We’ll be there around 10 PM, depending on
traffic.
 Early – Before an expected time.
o Benjamin Franklin once said “early to bed and
early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and
wise”.
o I don’t wake up early on weekends.
 Late – After an expected time.
o I get home late because I have a long commute.
o He woke up late because his alarm didn’t go off.
 Last – The previous period of time.
o The teacher gave us homework last class.
o The last time I went to Morocco, I got a souvenir.
 Next – The following period of time.
o We have a holiday next week.
o I will travel to Cuba next year.
 Every – Each, all.
o I work hard every day.
o Every time I call you, you’re busy!
 This – The present moment of a time period.
o This week she has had two job interviews.
o Fred thinks he’ll get a promotion this month.
Take vs. Have
Unlike French, Spanish, and other languages, we do not
use take with meals, food, or drink to mean “eat” or
“drink”. Instead, we use have.
 I have breakfast at 9 AM.
 Did you already have lunch?
 He has a cup of coffee every three hours.
 They usually have dinner late.
We only use take with medication, medicine, vitamins,
pills, capsules, etc. and other health-related items.
 She takes insulin for her diabetes.
 We take a multivitamin every day.
The simple past
Conjugation for regular verbs is subject + verb-ed (+
object).
 The teacher cleaned the classroom.
 The computer turned off.
 Donald prepared his lesson.
When stating a negative action, use subject + did + not +
verb (+ object). Note the main verb becomes infinitive.
 I didn’t eat lunch today.
 You didn’t find your wallet.
 They didn’t go to school last week.
When using the negative “be”, use subject + was/were
+ not (+ object).
 I wasn’t at home.
 She wasn’t ready.
 We weren’t done with the work.
Yes/No Questions – Simple Past Tense
When asking yes/no action questions, use did + subject
+ verb (+ object)?. With “be”, use was/were + subject +
object?.
 Did you drink enough water? -> Yes, I did. / No, I
didn’t.
 Did he come to school? -> Yes, he did. / No, he
didn’t.
 Did they bake a cake? -> Yes, they did. / No, they
didn’t.
 Was I right? -> Yes, you were. / No, you weren’t.
 Were you happy? -> Yes, I was. / No, I wasn’t.
 Were we lost? -> Yes, we were. / No, we weren’t.
Did + Subject + Infinitive Verb (+ Object)?
Was/Were + Subject + Object?
 Did Samantha call you today?
 Were you busy last night?
 Was your trip fun?
 Did we practice the future tense?
 Did you pass the exam?
 Were you sad when you said goodbye?
When the negative is used in a yes/no question, the
speaker wants confirmation for something they think is
true.
 Didn’t you go to school yesterday? (I think you went
to school yesterday.)
 Aren’t you married? (I think you are married.)
 Isn’t the answer to that problem “4”? (I think the
answer is “4”.)
Wh-/Information Questions – Simple Past Tense
When asking wh-/information questions, there are a
variety of conjugations and forms to use, depending on
what you want to ask. Use Wh- + did + subject + verb (+
object)?, Wh- (+ object) + did + subject + verb (+
object)?, or Wh- + was/were + subject + object?.
 Where did you buy your books? -> I bought them at
the Indigo bookstore.
 What book did you buy there? -> I bought
Siddhartha.
 Why were you there? -> Because I wanted a new
book.
For negative information questions, use Wh- + did +
subject + not + verb (+ object)?, or Wh- + was/were +
subject + not + object?. If you contract the auxiliary “do”
and the negative, or “be” with the negative, place both
the auxiliary and the negative “not” before the verb.
 Why did you not go to the concert? OR Why didn’t
you go to the concert? -> Because it was too
expensive.
 Why were you not here yesterday? OR Why weren’t
you here yesterday? -> I’m sorry, I was busy.
Wh- Word* + Did + Subject + Infinitive Verb (+ Object)?
Wh- Word + Was/Were + Subject + Object?
*We do not use “did + subject” with questions where
we don’t know the subject. We call these “subject
questions”.
 Who called Samantha? (Subject question)
- ______ called Samantha.
 Who did Samantha call? (Object question)
- Samantha called ______.
 Where did he go yesterday?
 When did you graduate from school?
 Why didn’t they tell us about the problem?
 What did you sell on Kijiji?
 What happened to you? (Subject question)
 How long did the movie last?
 How much (money) did you spend on your
computer?
 How many apples did we buy?
 How often did you come to class last year?
 Who saw the other teacher? (Subject question)
 Who did you see?
 What countries abolished the death penalty?
(Subject question)
 What did many countries abolish?
 Who lived in Canada before the French came?
(Subject question)
 Who did the aboriginal population meet in the 16th
century?
Subject vs. Object Questions
Information questions in English can ask either for
information about an object or a subject. This is only
true for questions asking Who? or What?/Which?.
Notice the difference between the questions below.
 Who talked to you?
o Fatima talked to me.
o My mother talked to me.
 Who did you talk to?
o I talked to my friend.
o I talked to Nicolai.
The indefinite article: A/An
When using unspecific singular count nouns, use a or
an. Use a before consonant sounds, an before vowel
sounds.
A student
cup
An apple
A teacher
An elephant
A car
A job
An opera
A
An igloo
What makes a noun unspecific? It is not unique and can
refer to any of that particular noun. Do not use a/an
before proper nouns or specific, unique nouns (e.g. the
Queen of England, the teacher in Room 302, Canada…).
What makes a noun countable? You can pluralize the
noun and put a number before it: one student, two
students, three students…
Agreeing and disagreeing with a statement or an
opinion
When agreeing with a positive statement or opinion, use
“me too,” “so am/do I,” or “I am/do too.” Change do for
a modal verb if necessary. When disagreeing, you may
use “I don’t” or “I’m not” depending on the verb.
“I love chocolate!”
“I’m tall.”
“Me too!” / “I don’t.”
“Me too.” / “I’m not.”
When agreeing with a negative statement or opinion,
you may use “me (n)either,” “Neither am/do I,” or “I
am/do not either”. Change do for a modal verb if
necessary. When disagreeing, you may use “I do” or “I
am” depending on the verb.
“I don’t like broccoli.”
“I’m not fat.”
“Me (n)either.” / “I do.” “Me (n)either.” / “I am.”
Involving other people in agreeing and disagreeing
Agreeing with a positive statement or opinion is not
limited to the first person. A speaker can involve other
people in the statement. Consider the chart.
Note that the verb “do” in all examples can also be
switched to a modal, such as “can” or “will”.
Positive statements
Me too
You too
Him/Her/It too
Us too
You too
Them too
So am/do I
So are/do you
So is/does he/she/it
So are/do we
So are/do you
So are/do they
I am/do too
You are/do too
He/She/It is/does too
We are/do too
You are/do too
They are/do too
Negative statements
Me (n)either
You (n)either
Him/Her/It (n)either
Us (n)either
You (n)either
Them (n)either
Neither am/do I
Neither are/do you
Neither is/does he/she/it
Neither are/do we
Neither are/do you
Neither are/do they
I am/do not either
You are/do not either
He/She/It is/does not either
We are/do not either
You are/do not either
They are/do not either
Order of adjectives
Sometimes things are described with more than one
adjective. The order we put them in, from first to last,
is…
Quantity –> Opinion –> Size –> Shape –> Age –> Pattern
–> Color –> Nationality –> Material -> Purpose/Qualifier
For example…
 He is a big young French man.
Size Age Nation
 She is wearing a beautiful short black silk dress.
Opinion Size Color Material
 That is a nice round Brazilian emerald ring.
Opinion Shape Nation Material
 We have two fast Italian sports cars.
Quantity Opinion Nation Purpose
Wh- words ending in –ever
Some wh- (information) words can end in “-ever”. This
changes their meaning:
 Whatever: Any thing (this word can also be used as
slang for a dismissal)
“I don’t care if we eat Japanese, Thai, or Cambodian
food. Choose whatever you want.”
 Whenever: Any time
“Whenever my family calls me, I end up talking to them
for thirty minutes no matter how busy I am.”
 Wherever: Any place
“He’s so rich, he can travel wherever he wants.”
 Whoever: Any person
“Whoever pulls this sword out of this stone shall be
king.”
 However: But
“She’s an excellent dancer. However, yesterday she
didn’t dance well.”
At least and at most mean at minimum and at
maximum.
 “I cook at least twice a week. Sometimes I cook
more often than that.”
 “I travel at most three times a year. I don’t have a lot
of money to spend.”
Who, Which, and That-clauses (noun phrases)
Nouns can be modified and used as object phrases using
“who”, “which”, and “that” to define them. We use
“who” with people, “which” with things, and “that” with
both.
“I know some girls who wear a hijab.”
- I know some girls. They wear a hijab.
“I have some students who speak French.”
- I have some students. They speak French.
“I spoke with a man that was from Thailand.”
- I spoke with a man. He was from Thailand.
“I drive a car which is fast.”
- I drive a car. It is fast.
“I like the book that you bought.”
- I like the book. The book you bought.
“I know people who don’t use computers.
- I know people. They don’t use computers.
Do you have students who speak French?
Yes, I do. I have students who speak French.
No, I don’t. I don’t have students who speak French.
How long?
When we want to know the duration of a verb or
activity, we can ask “how long?”
The conjugation of the question depends on two things:
if the action has finished, or the duration of the action.
We use for to explain the total duration. We use the
number of time units.
 I have been living in Canada for eleven years.
 He has spoken English for many decades.
 The Ming dynasty in China ruled for centuries.
We use since to talk about the start of an event. We only
use the first time unit.
 I have been living in Canada since 2005.
 She has played the piano since she was three years
old.
 We practiced soccer since we were in elementary
school.
We use from…to/until to talk about the start time and
end time of an event. We use any time units we want.
 We have class from 5:30 PM to 9:30 PM.
 From 2008 to 2016, Barack Obama was the president
of the United States.
 Nicolai and Daniel knew each other from the
beginning of class.
We use ago to talk about how long it has been since an
action ended. We use number of time units.
 I came to Canada eleven years ago.
 A long time ago, in a galaxy far, far away…
 He bought his cell phone two months ago.
Stative (non-action) verbs
Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form,
even when we are talking about temporary situations or
states. These are called stative verbs or non-action
verbs.
1. Stative verbs are often verbs connected with thinking
and opinions.
Verbs in this group include: know, agree, recognize,
believe, doubt, guess, imagine, mean, remember, think
2. Other stative verbs are connected with feelings and
emotions.
Verbs in this group include: like, dislike, love,
hate, prefer, want, wish (except “enjoy”: used in
progressive tense)
3. ‘see’, ‘hear’, ‘taste’, ‘smell’, ‘feel’ are verbs that
describe senses.
These verbs aren’t usually used in continuous forms.
They are often used with ‘can’.
4. Stative verbs describe things that are not actions.
Look carefully at these 2 sentences.
 He smells of fish.
 He’s smelling the fish.
The second sentence is an action – not a state. The man
wants to know if the fish is OK to eat.
 I think we should go to Croatia for our holiday this
year.
 Sorry, what did you say? I was thinking about my
holiday.
The first sentence is an opinion but the second sentence
is an action.
Comparatives
When looking at two nouns and wanting to compare
adjectives, we can use the comparative. For example:
 This sweater is more stylish than that one.
 These pants are warmer than those.
If the adjective has one syllable, use adjective + er:
 I am taller than you.
 This restaurant is cheaper than the bar.
 Canada is colder than Mexico.
If the adjective ends in –y, use adjective + ier:
 Today has been busier than yesterday.
 I think my girlfriend is prettier than that girl.
 Thomas is luckier than I am at poker.
If the adjective has two or more syllables, use more/less
+ adjective:
 This sweater is more stylish than that one.
 The iPhone is more expensive than the Android.
 Algebra is less complicated than calculus.
If you want to say the adjectives have the exact same
level, use as + adjective + as:
 My new apartment is as big as my old one.
 Andres is as nice as Sofia.
 Canadians are as polite as the French.
If you want to say the adjectives are different, you can
also use not as + adjective + as:
 English is not as difficult to learn as Hindi.
 Mozart is not as good as Beethoven.
 Toyotas are not as expensive as Ferraris.
To be more exact when using as ______ as, you can use
words like just, almost/nearly, and not nearly:
 Halimo is just as tall as Tabata. (Halimo is exactly the
same height as Tabata.)
 Joaquim is almost as talkative as Luis. (Joaquim and
Luis both talk a lot, but Luis talks a little more.)
 Patricia is not nearly as fast as Nadia. (Nadia is very
fast. Patricia is not as fast.)
Superlatives
When looking at three or more nouns and wanting to
compare adjectives to say one of the nouns is superior
to the others in that quality, we use the superlative. This
usually has a classification to determine what group the
nouns belong to (e.g. the room, the building, the group,
the world, etc.) For example:
 This sweater is the most stylish in the store.
 These pants are the warmest pair I own.
If the adjective has one syllable, use the + adjective +
est:
 I am the shortest person in the class.
 This restaurant is the cheapest eatery in the city.
 Canada is not the coldest country in the world.
If the adjective ends in –y, use the + adjective + iest:
 Monday is the busiest day of the week.
 Addition and subtraction are the easiest
mathematical concepts.
 Usain Bolt is the speediest man in the world.
If the adjective has two or more syllables, use the +
most/least + adjective:
 The Japanese are some of the most polite people in
the world.
 Windows is the most popular operating system.
 The printing press is the most important
communication technology ever invented.
Exceptions exist for the following adjectives for both the
comparative and superlative:
 Good -> Better -> The best
 Bad -> Worse -> The worst
 Far -> Farther/Further -> The farthest/furthest
 Fun -> More/Less fun -> The most/least fun
Adverbs follow the 2+ syllable rule, because they are not
really adjectives:
 Nacera works more quickly than Tina.
 Marcelo teaches more slowly than Donald.
 Of all the students, Omar completes his work the
most correctly.
Using conditional sentences: if clause and main clause
We use conditional sentences to indicate a possible
result or action that can only happen (or cannot happen)
if another result or action happens. There are two parts
to a conditional sentence: the if clause, and the main
clause.
Depending on when the condition happens and if the
condition is real, we use different forms.
Zero conditional (condition always happens)
In this conditional, the situations will always, 100% of
the time, happen. It’s automatic. For this conditional, we
use the simple present.
 If you press this button, the computer turns on.
 If you heat water, it boils.
 If you ask questions, you get answers.
First conditional (real present or future)
In this conditional, the main clause is possible, and could
happen. We use the present tense in the if-clause, and
the future in the main clause.
 If you work hard, you will be successful.
 If you open the door, the room will be cold.
 If she comes to class, we’ll study together.
Second conditional (unreal/imaginary present or future)
In this conditional, the present or future action is
impossible and cannot happen in reality. We use the
past tense in the if-clause to talk about the action
happening.
 If I didn’t have to work today, we could go on a trip.
 If I were a woman, my mother would have a
daughter.
 If I won the lottery, I would go to Asia.
 I wouldn’t work if it wasn’t necessary.
Third conditional (unreal/imaginary past)
In this conditional, we talk about changing the past and
doing different actions in the past, so the future will be
different. This is impossible, and because we’re changing
a past action, we use the participle form for the
grammar of the main clause. The if-clause, depending on
whether the verb happens once or happens habitually,
can be in the present perfect or simple present,
respectfully.
 If I had had the time, I would have helped you.
 I would have gotten to the airport on time if the taxi
had picked me up.
 I would have dressed up for Halloween if I
celebrated the holiday.
Using the third conditional makes an exception to the
use of the present and past perfect in the same
sentence.
Conjugation Formula
Zero conditional: The situation will always happen.
If subject + simple present, then subject + simple present.
First conditional: The situation can possibly happen.
If subject + simple present, then subject + simple future.
Second conditional: The situation cannot happen.
If subject + simple past, then subject + would + simple
present.
Third conditional: The situation in the past is changed.
If subject + past perfect, then subject + would +
have/had + past participle.
The simple future
We use different verb forms to talk about our plans for
the future – depending on what kind of plan it is.
We use will to talk about plans decided at the moment
of speaking.
 I forgot to phone my mom. I’ll do it after dinner. She
decides to phone his mom when she is speaking –
she didn’t have a plan.
 I can’t decide what to wear tonight. I know. I’ll wear
my black dress.
 There’s no milk in the fridge. I’ll buy some when I go
to the shops.
We use going to to talk about plans decided before the
moment of speaking.
 I’m going to phone my mom after dinner. I told her
I’d call at 8 o’clock. He decided to phone his mom
before he speaks – he already had a plan.
 I’m going to wear my black dress tonight. I need to
pick it up from the cleaners.
 I know there’s no milk. I’m going to get some. It’s on
my shopping list.
We can also use the present continuous to talk about
future plans. We usually use it when the plan is an
‘arrangement’ – more than one person is involved and
we know the time and place.
 I’m meeting Jane at 8 o’clock on Saturday.
 We’re having a party next Saturday. Would you like
to come?
 Are you doing anything interesting this weekend? We
often use the present continuous to ask about
people’s future plans.
All, Most, Some, Any, No/None
All means every, or whole, or each, noun.
Most means a majority of the noun.
Some means part of the noun.
Any is used to ask if a noun exists, or in a negative
answer.
No/None means the noun does not exist or is not
present.
All/Most/Some/Any/No + Noun
 Most children like to play.
 I don’t want any money.
 Some books are better than others.
 He has no friends.
 All cities have the same problems.
Notice that we do not use of in these sentences.
 Most people drive too fast (not Most of people)
 Some birds can’t fly. (not Some of birds)
Most of/Some of/Any of/None of + the/this/my…
 Most of the children in this school are 11 years old.
 I don’t want any money of this money.
 Some of these books are very old.
 None of my friends live near me.
You can say all the… or all of the… (with or without of)
 All the students in our class passed the exam (or All
of the students…)
 Silvia has lived in Miami all her life (or …all of her
life.)
All/Most/Some/Any/None of + Object Pronoun
 You can have some of this cake, but not all of it.
 Do I know those people? I know most of them, but
not all of them.
 Some of us are going out tonight. Why don’t you
come with us?
 I’ve got a lot of books, but I haven’t read any of
them.
 How many books have I read? None of them.
Both, Either, Neither
Both, either, and neither are used to talk about two
things or people.
Both is used to mean the two things or people together.
Either is used to mean one thing or the other thing, not
together.
Neither (not + either) is used to mean not one thing or
the other.
 Rebecca has two children. Both are married (both =
the two children)
 Would you like tea or coffee? You can have either.
(either = tea or coffee)
 The apple and the banana are not fresh. Neither is
good to eat. (neither = the apple or the banana)
Compare either and neither:
Host: “Would you like tea or coffee?”
Guest 1: “Either. It doesn’t matter.” (= tea or coffee)
Guest 2: “I don’t want either.” (not I don’t want neither)
Guest 3: “Neither.” (= not tea or coffee)
Both/Either/Neither + Noun (general)
Both + plural (both windows/books/children, etc.)
Either/Neither + singular (either/neither
window/book/child, etc.)
 Last year I went to Miami and Seattle. I liked both
cities very much.
 First I worked in an office and later in a store.
Neither job was very interesting.
 There are two ways to get to the airport. You can go
either way.
Both of…/Either of…/Neither of… + noun (specific)
Both (of) the/these/those/my/your/his, etc. …
Either/Neither of the/these/those/my/your/his, etc. …
 I like both of those pictures.
 Neither of my parents is Canadian.
 I haven’t read either of these books.
You can say both of the/those/etc. … or both
the/those/etc. … (with or without of)
 I like both (of) those pictures.
 Both (of) Paul’s sisters are married.
You must use of with either and neither.
 Neither of Bob’s sisters are married (not Neither
Bob’s sisters)
Both of/Either of/Neither of + Object Pronoun
 Paul has got two sisters. Both of them are married.
 Sue and I didn’t eat anything. Neither of us was
hungry.
 Who are those two people? I don’t know either of
them.
There Is and There Are
We use there is and there are to say that something
exists.
Positive Sentences
We use there is for singular and there are for plural.
 There is one table in the classroom.
 There are three chairs in the classroom.
 There is a spider in the bath.
 There are many people at the bus stop.
We also use There is with uncountable nouns:
 There is milk in the fridge.
 There is some sugar on the table.
 There is ice cream on your shirt.
Contractions
The contraction of there is is there's.
 There's a good song on the radio.
 There's only one chocolate left in the box.
You cannot contract there are.
 There are nine cats on the roof.
 There are only five weeks until my birthday.
Negative Form
The negative is formed by putting not after is or are:
 There is not a horse in the field.
 There are not eight children in the school.
 There is not a tree in the garden.
 There are not two elephants in the zoo.
We almost always use contractions when speaking.
The Negative contractions are:
 There's not = There isn't
 There are not = There aren't
“There aren't” with “any”
When we want to indicate that a zero quantity of
something exists we use there aren't any.
 There aren't any people at the party.
 There aren't any trees in my street.
We also use this structure with uncountable nouns:
 There isn't any water in the swimming pool.
 There isn't any sugar in my coffee.
Questions
To form a question we place is / are in front of there.
Again we use any with plural questions or those which
use uncountable nouns.
We also use there is / are in short answers.
 Is there a dog in the supermarket? - No, there isn't.
 Are there any dogs in the park? - Yes, there are.
 Is there a security guard in the shop? - Yes, there is.
 Are there any polar bears in Antarctica? - No, there
aren't.
 Is there any ice-cream in the freezer? - Yes, there is.
“How many” with “are there”
If we want to find out the number of objects that exist
we use How many in the following form:
How many + plural noun + are there (+ complement).
 How many dogs are there in the park?
 How many students are there in your class?
 How many countries are there in South America?
 How many Star Wars films are there?