Download lecture notes by: professor rodriguez

LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
CHEMISTRY
§ SCIENCE OF _______________________, ESPECIALLY ITS PROPERTIES, STRUCTURE,
COMPOSITION, BEHAVIOR, REACTIONS, INTERACTIONS AND THE CHANGES IT UNDERGOES.
CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BIOLOGY
§ _______________________ IS A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE
§ LIVING _______________________ ARE SUBJECT TO BASIC LAWS OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS
§ MATTER – ANYTHING THAT ____________________________ AND HAS MASS (WEIGHT)
§ ATOM – THE SMALLEST PARTICLE OF AN _______________ THAT RETAINS THE PROPERTY OF
THE ELEMENT
§
§
ELEMENT – A SUBSTANCE THAT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN TO A SIMPLER SUBSTANCE BY
__________________________ CHEMICAL MEANS
COMPOUND – A SUBSTANCE THAT CONSISTS OF _____________________________________
COMBINED IN A FIXED RATIO
WHAT’S A MATTER?
§ MATTER CONSISTS OF CHEMICAL _______________________ IN PURE FORM AND IN
COMBINATIONS CALLED _______________________
§ _______________________ ARE COMPOSED OF MATTER
§ MATTER IS ANYTHING THAT TAKES UP SPACE AND HAS MASS
§ _______________________ IS MADE UP OF ELEMENTS
§ AN ELEMENT IS A SUBSTANCE THAT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN TO OTHER SUBSTANCES BY
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
§
A _______________________ IS A SUBSTANCE CONSISTING OF TWO OR MORE ELEMENTS IN A
FIXED RATIO
TYPES OF ENERGY
§ CHEMICAL ENERGY IS THE TYPE OF ENERGY STORED IN THE BONDS OF CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES
§
§
§
ELECTRICAL ENERGY INVOLVES THE MOVEMENT OF CHARGED PARTICLES. IN THE BODY
ELECTRICAL CURRENTS ARE GENERATED WHEN CHARGED PARTICLES CALLED IONS MOVE
ALONG OR ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES.
MECHANICAL ENERGY INVOLVES MOVING MATTER.
RADIANT ENERGY OR ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY OR ENERGY WAVES, VISIBLE LIGHT,
INFRARED WAVES, RADIO WAVES, ULTRAVIOLET WAVES, AND X-RAYS.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
POSITIONING OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
TYPES OF ATOMS
§ ION- AN ION IS A _______________________ ATOM
§ ANION- AN ANION IS A _______________________ CHARGED ION
§ CATION- A CATION IS A _______________________ CHARGED ION
CONFIGURATION OF ELECTRONS
§ THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR OF AN ATOM IS DETERMINED BY THE _______________________
§
§
OF ELECTRONS IN ELECTRON SHELLS
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS SHOWS THE ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION FOR EACH
ELEMENT
CONFIGURATION OF ELECTRONS
o ___ IN FIRST SHELL
o ___ IN SECOND SHELL
o ___ IN THE THIRD SHELL
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
§ ELECTRONEGATIVITY IS AN ATOM’S ____________FOR THE ELECTRONS IN A COVALENT BOND
§ THE MORE ELECTRONEGATIVE AN ATOM, THE MORE ____________IT PULLS SHARED
ELECTRONS TOWARD ITSELF
ISOTOPES
§ ATOMS OF THE SAME ____________THAT HAVE DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
§ MAKING AND BREAKING CHEMICAL BONDS
TYPES OF BONDS
§ AN ATTRACTION BETWEEN ATOMS THAT ALLOWS THE FORMATION OF CHEMICAL
SUBSTANCES
THREE MAJOR CATEGORIES OF BONDS:
1. ____________________BOND
2. ____________________BOND
3. ____________________BOND
IONIC BONDS
§ A CHEMICAL BOND FORMED THROUGH AN ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION BETWEEN TWO
____________________CHARGED IONS
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
BETWEEN A ____________________, WHICH IS USUALLY A METAL, AND AN
____________________, WHICH IS USUALLY A NONMETAL
COVALENT BONDS
§ BOND FORMED THROUGH AN ATTRACTION BETWEEN TWO GASSES
§ IN THIS BOND THE ELECTRONS ARE ____________________INSTEAD OF TAKEN
§
POLAR, NONPOLAR:
HYDROGEN BONDS
§ ATTRACTIVE INTERACTION OF A HYDROGEN ATOM WITH AN ELECTRONEGATIVE ATOM, SUCH
AS NITROGEN, OXYGEN OR FLUORINE…
§ THIS BOND IS A ____________________BOND AND IS BROKEN MUCH EASIER THAN A IONIC
AND COVALENT BOND…
MIMICRY
§ BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES RECOGNIZE AND INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER WITH A SPECIFICITY
BASED ON ____________________SHAPE
§ MOLECULES WITH ____________________SHAPES CAN HAVE SIMILAR BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
§ PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS AN IMPORTANT ____________________REACTION
§ IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS, SUNLIGHT ____________________THE CONVERSION OF CO2 AND H20
TO GLUCOSE (C6H12O6) AND O2
WATER YOU TALKING ABOUT?
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF WATER
§ MAKES UP ____________________ OF VOLUME OF MOST LIVING CELLS.
§ HIGH HEAT CAPACITY – ____________________AND RELEASES LARGE AMOUNTS OF HEAT.
WATER REDISTRIBUTES HEAT AMONG BODY TISSUES ENSURING TEMPERATURE
HOMEOSTAIS
§ HIGH HEAT OF VAPORIZATION – LARGE AMOUNTS OF HEAT MUST BE ________________TO
BREAK HYDROGEN BONDS THAT HOLD WATER MOLECULES TOGETHER.
o EXAMPLE: SWEATING
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
§
POLAR SOLVENT PROPERTIES- UNIVERSAL ____________________. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
DO NOT REACT CHEMICALLY UNLESS THEY ARE IN SOLUTION, SO VIRTUALLY ALL CHEMICAL
REACTIONS OCCURRING IN THE BODY DEPEND ON WATER.
§
§
REACTIVITY – WATER IS AN IMPORTANT ____________________.
HYDROLYSIS REACTIONS – WATER MOLECULE IS NEEDED FOR EACH BOND
____________________IN DIGESTION OF FOOD.
DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS – WATER MOLECULES ARE ____________________FOR EVERY
BOND FORMED IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
CUSHIONING – WATER IS ABLE TO ____________________SHOCK (PHYSICAL TRAUMA)
PROTECTING INTERNAL ORGANS AND THE BRAIN (CEREBROSPINAL FLUID)
§
§
MOLECULE THAT SUPPORTS LIFE
§ WATER IS THE BIOLOGICAL ____________________ON EARTH
§ ALL LIVING ORGANISMS REQUIRE WATER MORE THAN ANY OTHER SUBSTANCE
§ MOST CELLS ARE ____________________BY WATER, AND CELLS THEMSELVES ARE ABOUT 7095% WATER
§ THE ABUNDANCE OF WATER IS THE MAIN REASON THE EARTH IS HABITABLE
§ THE ____________________OF WATER MOLECULES RESULTS IN HYDROGEN BONDING
§ THE WATER MOLECULE IS A POLAR MOLECULE: THE OPPOSITE ENDS HAVE OPPOSITE
§
CHARGES
POLARITY ALLOWS WATER MOLECULES TO FORM ____________BONDS WITH EACH OTHER
FOUR OF WATER’S PROPERTIES THAT FACILITATE AN ENVIRONMENT FOR LIFE:
§ ____________________BEHAVIOR
§ ABILITY TO MODERATE ____________________
§ ____________________UPON FREEZING
§ VERSATILITY AS A ____________________
§ ____________________
COLLECTIVELY, HYDROGEN BONDS HOLD WATER MOLECULES TOGETHER
§ ____________________HELPS THE TRANSPORT OF WATER AGAINST GRAVITY IN PLANTS
§ ____________________OF WATER TO PLANT CELL WALLS ALSO HELPS TO COUNTER GRAVITY
SURFACE TENSION
§ SURFACE TENSION IS A MEASURE OF HOW HARD IT IS TO _________THE SURFACE OF A LIQUID
§ SURFACE TENSION IS RELATED TO ____________________
MODERATION OF TEMPERATURE
§ WATER ABSORBS HEAT FROM WARMER AIR AND RELEASES STORED HEAT TO COOLER AIR
§ WATER CAN ABSORB OR RELEASE A LARGE AMOUNT OF HEAT WITH ONLY A SLIGHT CHANGE
§
IN ITS OWN TEMPERATURE
KINETIC ENERGY IS THE ENERGY OF MOTION
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
§
HEAT IS A MEASURE OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF KINETIC ENERGY DUE TO MOLECULAR
§
MOTION
TEMPERATURE MEASURES THE INTENSITY OF HEAT DUE TO THE AVERAGE KINETIC ENERGY OF
MOLECULES
SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER
§ THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF A SUBSTANCE IS THE AMOUNT OF HEAT THAT MUST BE ABSORBED OR
LOST FOR 1 GRAM OF THAT SUBSTANCE TO CHANGE ITS TEMPERATURE BY 1ºC
§ WATER’S HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT MINIMIZES TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS TO WITHIN LIMITS
THAT PERMIT LIFE
o HEAT IS ____________________WHEN HYDROGEN BONDS BREAK
o HEAT IS ____________________WHEN HYDROGEN BONDS FORM
EVAPORATIVE COOLING
§ EVAPORATION IS TRANSFORMATION OF A SUBSTANCE FROM LIQUID TO GAS
§ HEAT OF ____________________IS THE HEAT A LIQUID MUST ABSORB FOR 1 GRAM TO BE
§
CONVERTED TO GAS
AS A LIQUID EVAPORATES, ITS REMAINING SURFACE ____________________, A PROCESS
CALLED EVAPORATIVE COOLING
§
EVAPORATIVE COOLING OF WATER HELPS STABILIZE TEMPERATURES IN ORGANISMS AND
BODIES OF WATER
INSULATION OF WATER BY ICE
§ ICE FLOATS IN LIQUID WATER BECAUSE HYDROGEN BONDS IN ICE ARE MORE “ORDERED,”
MAKING ICE LESS ____________________
§ IF ICE SANK, ALL BODIES OF WATER WOULD EVENTUALLY FREEZE SOLID, MAKING LIFE
IMPOSSIBLE ON EARTH
THE SOLVENT OF LIFE
§ A SOLUTION IS A LIQUID THAT IS A HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE OF SUBSTANCES
§ A SOLVENT IS THE DISSOLVING AGENT OF A SOLUTION
§ THE SOLUTE IS THE SUBSTANCE THAT IS DISSOLVED
§ WATER IS A VERSATILE SOLVENT DUE TO ITS POLARITY
§ AN ____________________SOLUTION IS ONE IN WHICH WATER IS THE SOLVENT
§ WATER IS AN EFFECTIVE SOLVENT BECAUSE IT READILY FORMS HYDROGEN BONDS
§ WHEN AN IONIC COMPOUND IS DISSOLVED IN WATER, EACH ION IS SURROUNDED BY A
SPHERE OF WATER MOLECULES, A HYDRATION SHELL
WHAT IS PH
§ A SCALE FROM THE RANGE OF 0 – 14
§ 7.0 REPRESENTS NEUTRAL
§ LOWER THAN 7 IS ACID
§ HIGHER THAN 7 IS ALKALINE
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
PH IS THE CONCENTRATION OF H+
o MORE H+ THE LOWER THE PH OR MORE ACID
o LESS H+ THE HIGHER THE PH OR MORE ALKALINE
DISASSOCIATION
§
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
EQUILIBRIUM:
EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION:
BUFFERS RESIST ABRUPT CHANGES
§ BUFF
§
§ ERS RELEASE H+ AS PH RISES
§ BUFFERS BIND H+ WHEN PH DECREASES
§ ACIDITY ON REFLECTS FREE HYDROGEN IONS (H+) NOT WHEN THEY ARE BOUND TO ANIONS.
THE BICARBONATE ION
§ THE MOST IMPORTANT SINGLE BUFFER IN HUMAN BLOOD IS THE BICARBONATE ION.
§ BICARBONATE, HCO3-, IS IN EQUILIBRIUM WITH H2CO3 (CARBONIC ACID) AS FOLLOWS:
o H2CO3 ßà H+ + HCO3BUFFERING EQUATION:
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
§ COMPLEX COMPOUNDS OF CARBON.
§ VARY IN LENGTH AND SHAPE.
§ HYDROGEN, NITROGEN, AND OXYGEN ATOMS ARE THE
MOST COMMON ATOMS THAT ARE GENERALLY
ATTACHED TO THE CARBON ATOMS.
DRAW CARBON
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
§
EACH CARBON ATOM HAS ______ AS ITS VALENCE NUMBER WHICH INCREASES THE
COMPLEXITY OF THE COMPOUNDS THAT ARE FORMED.
CARBON ATOM
§ THE FOUR (4) VALENCE ELECTRONS MAKE IS VERY ATTRACTIVE TO OTHER ELEMENTS.
POLYMER TO MONOMER:
CARBOHYDRATES
§ CARBON
§ HYDROGEN
§ OXYGEN
TYPES OF SUGARS
§ MONOSACCHARIDE (GLUCOSE)
§ DISACCHARIDES (MALTOSE)
§ POLYSACCHARIDES (STARCH)
EXAMPLES OF STARCH
§ CEREALS, RICE, WHEAT, MAIZE, POTATOES
§ ACORNS, BANANAS, BARLEY, BUCKWHEAT, OATS, SWEET POTATOES, RYE, CHESTNUTS, WATER
CHESTNUTS, YAMS
§ MANY KINDS OF BEANS, BREAD, PANCAKES, CEREALS, NOODLES, PASTA, PORRIDGE AND
TORTILLA.
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
LIPIDS
§ CARBON
§ HYDROGEN
§
§
OXYGEN (LESS)
PHOSPHORUS (SOME)
SATURATED VS. UNSATURATED
§ ____________________ FATS (BUTTER, DAIRY PRODUCTS, MEAT) ARE FATS WHICH ARE
EVENLY FILLED OUT WITH HYDROGEN, WHICH REMAINS SOLID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.
§ THE INTRODUCTION OF ____________________ IN THE HYDROCARBON CHAIN RESULTS IN
THE FORMATION OF THE UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS (VEGETABLE OILS).
SATURATED VS UNSATURATED
§ SATURATED FATTY ACIDS INCREASE THE LEVELS OF ____________CHOLESTEROL (LDL) AND
CLOG THE ARTERIES.
§ UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS INCREASE THE LEVELS OF ____________ CHOLESTEROL (HDL)
BY TAKING THE LDL TO THE LIVER TO BE BROKEN DOWN AND REMOVED FROM THE BODY.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS MODIFIES TRIGLYCERIDES AND PHOSPHOROUS
§ CELL MEMBRANE
DRAW A PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
(BE SURE TO LABEL HEAD, TAIL, H YDROPHOBIC AND HYDROPHILIC)
STEROIDS
§ IMPORTANT MOLECULES ESSENTIAL FOR LIFE
§ FOUND IN CELL MEMBRANES
§ STEROID HORMONES
§ SEX HORMONES
§ CORTICOSTEROIDS
§ CHOLESTEROL
§ STRUCTURAL BASIS FOR ALL BODY STEROIDS
LECTURE NOTES BY: PROFESSOR RODRIGUEZ
PROTEINS
§ 10-30% OF CELL MASS
§ ENZYMES
§ HEMOGLOBIN IN BLOOD
§ BASIC STRUCTURES
§ ______________ AND PEPTIDE BONDS
MADE UP OF:
• HYDROGEN
• CARBON
• OXYGEN
• NITROGEN
• SULFUR AND PHOSPHORUS
AMINO ACIDS
NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
1. ALA = ALANINE
2. ASP = ASPARTIC ACID
3. CYS = CYSTEINE
4. ASN = ASPARAGINE
5. GLN = GLUTAMINE
6. GLU = GLUTAMIC ACID
7. GLY = GLYCINE
8. PRO = PROLINE
9. SER = SERINE
10. TYR = TYROSINE
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
1. ARG = ARGININE
2. HIS = HISTIDINE
3. ILE – ISOLEUCINE
4. LEU = LEUCINE
5. LYS = LYSINE
6. MET = METHIONINE
7. PHE = PHENYLALANINE
8. THR = THREONINE
9. TRP = TRYPTOPHAN
10. VAL = VALINE
DNA AND ITS SUBPARTS
§ NUCLEIC ACIDS
NUCLEIC ACID
§ LARGEST MOLECULE IN BODY
§ BUILDING BLOCKS CALLED NUCLEOTIDES
§ 5 TYPES OF ____________BASES
o ADENINE (A)
o GUANINE (G)
o CYTOSINE (C)
o THYMINE (T)
o URACIL (U) (ONLY IN RNA)
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES
§ DNA AND WHAT IT IS MADE OF
§ A GENE CONSIST OF DNA,
_________________ STRANDS (DOUBLE
HELIX) OF REPEATING UNITS
o SUGAR: ____________
o PHOSPHATE
o NITROGEN CONTAINING BASES
PRESENT
THE NITROGENOUS BASES:
§ PURINES (____________, GUANINE)
§ PYRIMADINES (THYMINE, _________)
§ DNA IS ANTIPARALLEL
DRAW OUT DNA STRUCTURE
DRAW OUT A STRAND OF DNA