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Livy
(from P.G. Walsh’s book)
D. Swift
Personal background: 59BC – 17 AD
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Almost whole life devoted to literary composition
Influenced by Patavium - Patavinitas
Not like Rome – retained strict moral outlook of old
But not a backwater, was thriving , prosperous, Livy educated there
Too dangerous to finish education off in Rome: Civil War
Vagueness of knowledge of Geography, so probably didn’t do Greece or much else, but tries to
clarify topography
No military experience, evidenced from ignorance of practical soldiering in texts
Pre-occupied with history and philosophy
Wrote dialogues modelled on Cicero’s
Wholly influenced by Stoic ethics
Politically:
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Pro-senatorial
Pro-Republican
Favoured aristocratic form of government
Emphasis on strict morals of great Republican leaders
Well trained in theory of oratory – speech composition
Ab urbe condita
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Started when he came to Rome c.29BC?
Came to consult sources unavailable in Patavium
A prose epic for a nation at peace, to guide men in their principles of conduct by an appeal to
the mores of Republican heroes
142 books: from foundation to 9 BC
averaged over 3 books per year for 40 years
work of unflagging industry
needed to scrutinize at least 3 sources for each book
reconcile them,
translate into Augustan prose
re-write the speeches
life of complete dedication to his writing
little personal speculation, mechanical after a while?
naïve idea? Not enough research? Too immense a task? Thoughts of abandonment?
Yet, clear evidence of a pentad structure – except when events become more complex later on
Major events often reserved for first book in pentad
Book XXX occupied entirely by Hannibalic War
Divided into
o Rise of Hannibal
o Roman counter-attack
Livy and Augustus:
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Renewed hope of Augustus’ reign
Notion of Octavian as second Romulus current in Rome
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Augustan writers of the day all looked back in shame and anger at savagery of Civil wars
Rome dominates ab urbe condita , as it does Aeneid: pulcherrima rerum
Divinely founded, providentially guided, mission to found pax Romana
Livy as propagandist?
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Message simply to recommend the principate?
Divine allusions to Augustus (Romulus, Hercules, Numa)
Tacitus: “after the Battle of Actium impartial history can no longer exist.”
Livy a close friend and frequent visitor to Augustus’ court
But Livy could and did write what he wanted (e.g. praised Pompey….)
No flattering mention of the Emperor anywhere
He acclaims end of civil strife, but seeks no favours from Augustus
Early books of AUC concentrate on
o religious observances of early days
o important role of chastity (pudicitia)
o and actually inspired Augustus’ programme of religious and moral reform
Livy speaks of need but sceptical of immediate achievement
Historiography
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Romans concerned to match Greeks in literary elegance rather than scientific accuracy
Polybius insisted historiographer needed to serve state actively to get experience, knowledge,
judgement
Livy turned it into more academic pursuit
Thucydides
o Followed convention of composing speeches in a manner apposite to the occasion –
o Polybius disagreed, but Livy was to follow this convention
o Believed study of history to be of practical benefit to statesman, as did Polybius
o Reflected teaching of the sophists – sceptical about oracles and divine intervention – the
gods are absent and irrelevant
o Avoided legends of the past (as did Sallust, but not Livy)
Polybius
o Believed historian’s job was to discover what was actually said or done “however
commonplace”
o Concern for truth and serious political treatment
Hellenistic historiography (apart from Polybius)
o Declined in standards from Thucydides
o Purpose was to charm, divert, edify, preoccupation with the literary
o Some aimed at effects similar to tragedy
o Popular view that history should have didactic function
Roman historiography
o Early trial and experiment
o Only records prior to Punic wars were tabulae pontificum, i.e. community chronicals
compiled annually by pontifex maximus
o Early Roman historians wrote their history in Greek – to reach a wider audience and
impress Greek world with rise of Rome
o Cato (2nd century), first to write history in Latin
o Influenced by Hellenistic writers and techniques
o But also by tradition that history-writing in Latin was in origin official and religious
o NB Livy records early legends, underlining the sentimental value of them Tabulae
pontificum were venerated, whether true or not
o As were old registers and annals, copied faithfully by Livy, supplemented later by
senatorial transactions
o Later annalists distorted these senatorial records of debates out of patriotism, e.g. to
glorify own family
o These records still incorporated into Livy’s account – out of reverence for records of
early history
o Influence of Isocrates:
 History should be magister vitae
o
 His tenets are: Lux, brevitas, fides (clarity, brevity, plausibility)
Influence of Cicero – standards Livy sought to attain
 Condemns debasement of history in family records
 Differentiates between history and encomium
 The fabulous should be absent from history – Livy achieves this except in early
books, where this is all there is to go on
 Historian should analyse motives or intentions so forming the sequence:
consilia, acta, eventus
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Livy follows this esp in 4th and 5th decades, prefaces account of decisive action
with psychological analysis of motives of participants
 illustrious persons’ careers and characters should be analysed, not just their
actions (they make history) – central feature of Livy’s work
 it is the individual (human qualities), as well as chance and divine intervention
which makes history
 the causes of important events should be investigated – Livy repeatedly
mentions role of the gods in human affairs – in line with his deeply religious
interpretation of history
 history should have ethical function: Livy very influenced by this - the great
heroes of his history symbolize the qualities that made Rome great – plus belief
in the practical utility of history for the statesman
 Livy rejects mere pleasing and charming of the reader, his work has a more
didactic purpose
 stresses need for eloquentia –
 Livy indebted to “rhetorical” and “tragic” theories of history – occasionally goes in
for “set pieces”, digressions on e.g.
 topics of antiquarian interest,
 manner of death of famous men,
 siege and capture of cities
 dramatic dialogues
 human situations of horror, pathos or romance
 composes episodes according to Aristotelian (i.e. episodes have beginning,
middle and end) theory of tragedy
 recommends annalistic method
Influence of Caesar
 Livy learned much from Gallic and Civil Wars commentaries
 In description of troop dispositions
 Other techniques of military narration
Influence of Sallust
 Chose a contemporary theme
 Avoided legend
 Adopted scientific Thucydidean method, but pre-occupied with ethics, viewing all
history in terms of man’s duties to gods and fellow-men.
 Used stylistic features antithetical to Cicero and, hence condemned by Livy (e.g.
verbal archaism, abrupt brevity of expression)
Scope of the Ab Urbe Condita
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narrow, because of points above (no social, economic factors etc)
limited to a period largely concerned with wars
 to establish position in Italy
 and a series of overseas campaigns
 and the civil wars resulting in collapse of the Republic
3 types of historical material: general framework of words and deeds
1. narrative of the campaigns
2. spoken word
 assemblies
 conferences
 speeches made to troops
3. annalistic framework (going back to tabulae pontificum)
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 appointments, state festivals, reports of dreams, prodigies
he still tries to retain rhetorical ideal
sees no need to state that he will write “sine ira et studio” (Tacitus) – has no axe to grind
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but struggles for the impartiality of a Thucydides
– too uncritical patriotism, too Roman bias
political acrimony of last century of Republic, Livy opposed to populares (Caesar)
Religion, Philosophy, Morality
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His interest in the past is purely academic?
Evidence for unshakeable belief in the old gods?
1st century intellectuals (Caesar, Cicero, Epicureans etc) questioning crude superstition
Livy shows scepticism too:
 Dicitur, ferunt, traditum memoriae, visi sunt – phrases which allow him to
distance himself from what he is describing
o Is it the social value of religion he is interested in? Does he see a symbolic truth in state
religion, absurdities and all? Livian pietas.
o Cf Ovid’s expedit esse deos
o Livy’s Stoic determinism
o There is an essential harmony in matter, directed by a material god immanent in it – the
man who follows life of virtue, reason, harmony with universe is successful; man who
follows vice and greed fails.
o Early books stress testing of the Roman people by constraining force (final clauses) His
use of fatum , which the gods cannot change, linked with major crises – predestined
emergence of Scipio Africanus “fatalis dux”
o Fortuna – increasingly worshipped at Rome as state religion declined – to the Stoic, just
another manifestation of Intelligence of the world, guiding it to pre-destined end. “luck” or
“chance” is sent by the gods.
o Prodigies and dreams; included as an appeal to the wisdom of the past? To defend
older and better values? Do they possibly express the divine will? Sometimes he’s
scathing about them. Are they evidence for a disordered universe? (anathema to Stoics)
o Livy encouraged by Stoic dogma to believe Romans were a master race. Undisguised
chauvinism in every book. But not in reference to 1st century Rome – very pessimistic
about this.
o The past as an “Ethical battlefield” Celebration of leaders with qualities such as
 Pietas – towards the gods
 Fides – towards men
 Concordia – civic virtue, struggle of the Orders
 Disciplina – deference to authority, both military and civic – subordination of
personal desires to the orders of the commander
 Prudentia (not temeritas) – foresight, leaving nothing to chance
 Ratio (not ferocitas) – reason in politics and war
 Clementia – mercy (but only towards those willing to surrender!) Scipio
personifies Roman clemency – idealized picture of him – Polybius tells us he
ordered slaughter after capture of New Carthage. Livy impersonalises it.
 Pudicitia – chastity esp. story of Sophonisba and Scipio’s reproach to Massinissa
(Polybius says Scipio was “fond of the fair sex”)
 Behind Africanus the authentic tones of Livy the Stoic are audible
 Virtus (Romana) – courage, no quality more vital than his in Rome’s rise to
power. Sc Livy’s comparison of Rome’s troops with Carthaginian
 Dignitas – acting in accordance with one’s status
 Gravitas – seriousness Livy excises all the jokes! Leads to pompous sobriety
 Frugalitas – without luxury (eg Cincinatus)
o And what happens to leaders who fail to observe some or any of these (tragic concept of
history)(According to Livy, Hannibal lost 2nd Punic War mainly because of dangerous
relaxation in Capua in 216/5BC…again at odds with Polybius’ account!; “Hannibal never
brought in his men from under the open sky”.)
Sense of ordered and intelligible universe which justifies the title of Livy of “philosophic
historian”
Characterisation of individuals by the indirect method;
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speeches and remarks made by him
attitudes of contemporaries towards the person, in their speeches and actions
mental reaction of others, or the course of action they adopt in response
sometimes adds brief comment on important persons after their death (sc Scipio, the man who
won the Hannibalic War)
comparison and contrast between leaders, esp contrasting foreigners
(e.g. Syphax (lack of good faith) and Masinissa (constantissima fides towards Rome. He is a
foreigner with almost all the Roman virtues) One of Livy’s great heroes; “by far the greatest king
of his day”
o religious
o shows forethought and boldness as general
o controls passion at Scipio’s command – poisons Sophonisba
o valiant
Scipio – Livy’s ideal Roman
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Livy takes his side in the dramatic controversies arising out of his policies, concentrates on his
moral qualities
from the Stoics point of view, he is a man of fate destined to lead Rome to greatness (cf Virgil’s
Aeneas)
but dismisses Scipio’s claims of seeing visions as superstition, even deceit.
Stoicism finds no place for mysticism – Livy prefers to portray Scipio as a man with firm beliefs
in traditional religion
accepts his fortune on behalf of the Roman people – this is not chance but Stoic destiny
majestic bearing – his effect on assemblies, armies, foreigners like Masinissa but had no
thoughts of kingship
his generalship is praised, Livy embarrassed by Scipio’s duplicity in burning of enemy’s camps
in 204/3 – deceit and guile more the Carthaginian way, so invents a reason why Scipio couldn’t
ratify the negotiated “peace”
omits what is unedifying in leading Romans
Characterisation of Hannibal
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career depicted as classic example of man who trusts initially in fortune
confidence increased by temporary success
in defeat learns his expectations wrongly based
before Zama says he has learnt to trust reason rather than fortune
traditional portrait of him includes vices such as
o no fear of the gods – yet seems contradicted at times
o no observance of law
o but there is no”perfidia plus quam Punica”
o Carthaginian cruelty and guile
Tho a character more human and worthy of respect than painted in earlier tradition – as always
he looks for moral qualities
Had sense of humour, and humanity
Livy’s assessment of him as a general has limitations (as it does of Scipio), has moral qualities,
powers of endurance, bravery, boldness, fine leadership of polytglot army but unable to
appreciate his strategic competence etc.
Races and Nations
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often gives direct estimate of their qualities
banal, unsubtle, reflecting Roman insularity
esp. Punica fraus, Punica fides
conventional portraits of Italians eg Campanians, degenerate; Sabines incorruptible, Volscii
fickle etc
“Livy has allowed his pursuit of edifying examples to take precedence over a truthful account. He has
sought out examples of vice in order to demonstrate its destructive effect on the individual and the
community. It is this conception of history, dominated by idealized heroes and denigrated villains, which
is ultimately responsible for the most serious defect in Livy’s work. He has falsified history not by error
but by design.”
Livy’s Historical authorities
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Livy’s failure to search out and evaluate original documentary evidence
His quotes from ancient documents are he has found in a literary source
Available documentary evidence?
o Annals maximi (bare outline of Rome’s history c.80 books gathered from tabulae
pontificum, about 115BC)
o Libri lintei (kept in Temple of Juno Moneta, kept magistrate lists)
o Permanent records of senatus consultu (available in book form in Livy’s day)
o Private archives (more detailed accounts of transaction of state affairs)
Livy never consulted any of these directly = unhistorical attitude towards documentary evidence
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Willingness to accept the testimony of others = a feature familiar in Roman historiography
Cf Pliny the Younger:
“If my subject is an ancient period already discussed by others, my material will be ready at
hand”.
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Livy tried to present the research undertaken by others in a more attractive literary setting
His literary sources?
For Books 1-10
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Valerias Antias, has faults of turgidity and exaggeration, but at least consulted original
documents and so Livy did well to follow him. Patrician in bias. Particularly used in XXX and
following.
Claudius Quadrigarius, ignored the early history of Rome as being unscientific, so started with
sack of Rome by the Gauls, down to 82BC, consulted annals maximi, tried for a more
interesting and exciting account with essentially turgid material.
Licinius Macer, Plebeian in bias
Aelius Tubero (the main source) wrote on Law as well as history, enthusiastic antiquary, Livy
reproduced many of his religious, military and civil procedural formulae.
Fabius Pictor, wrote his history in Greek, quoted by Livy on several occasions, heavily
influenced the tradition inherited by Livy of being pro-Roman and writing in the annalistic style –
patriotically distorted the events of the 2nd Punic War. Polybius noted this. Main source for
Roman viewpoint in 2nd Punic War for both Coelius and Polybius
Nb repeated use of ut ferunt, traditur, proditum memoriae – stressing his dependence on
unreliable traditions
Book 30
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Coelius Antipater , used as main source for XXI-II, chief source for Spanish affairs for 3rd
decade and for Italian campaigns for as long as Hannibal was successful
Polybius – only acknowledged by name once, but Livy shows familiarity with him as early as
Book XXI and becomes main authority from XXIV onwards, especially when it concerns Greece
or Sicily and the campaign in Africa.
o Wrote a history of the period 264-146, in 40 books, main theme was rise of Rome to
world domination 220-168
o Aimed to write a universal history
o More scientific, more rational approach than other of Livy’s sources – tried always to find
natural causes for events, downplayed caprice, chance – as does Livy in 4th decade
where Polybius is sole source.
Historical Methods
Polybius identified ( and Livy knew of these requirements) 3 duties for any serious historian: he must
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Study documents and memoirs and compare them
Personally scrutinize cities and sites, rivers and harbours, physical features of land and sea
concerned in his account
Have engaged in political activity
Ab urbe condita deficient – geographical errors, factual mistakes on military matters But choice of
sources for first decade shows attempt at impartiality (Tubero, Macer and Antias split in their partiality
for Populares and Patricians)
3rd Decade
Polybius main source, but also Antias (Livy uses a check source for him, no doubt aware of Antias’
fondness of exaggeration) depicts Roman recovery from a Roman point of view, and Coelius.
4th Decade
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Polybius used for events in the East and for details of embassies to Rome from eastern states
Antias prominent in first eight books, Claudius thereafter. Both used as sources for Italian and
Western affairs
How does he use these sources?
Requirement 1 Personal scrutiny of documents and memoirs:
Generally he
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Uses one source in the description of an event
Introduces to it his own motivation (political, religious, moral)
Reorganizes it to suit own style
Quotes views of others who might differ in interpretation or tally of numbers killed etc.
Allows his main narrative to rest on the factual information of a single authority
Frequently changes main source within a book or even chapter
Often refers to “auctores”, when in fact he’s only consulting an “auctor”
Often summarises at end of a description a different view, without any clear indication of his
own judgement
Sometimes mistranslates Polybius’ Greek source ( e.g. thureous – thuros Livy has men
defending themselves with “doors” rather than “shields”!)
Sometimes misinterprets whole sentences – and has probably not read it the original closely
enough – fatigue??
Sometimes repeats obvious mistakes from the sources, dates of battles, numbers killed etc
chronology in general, distortions through family interests
Creates confusion and repetition when passing from one source to another
Sometimes perverts or hides the truth for patriotic or moral reasons eg Scipio Africanus
described as man of complete integrity, conduct of Roman troops idealized, defers to earlier
members of the Livia gens
Sc Caligula’s judgement that he was “the inaccurate historian” Suet. Cal. 34
Requirment 2 personal scrutiny of places etc:
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Livy is Vague about foreign soil and even about regions of Italy
Confused over place names and locations (even Saguntum!)
Hannibal’s route over the Alps??! (Polybius’ account is fullest available, but still bare of names
of rivers, towns etc)
At pains, nevertheless to describe topography of a battle
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Ignorant of military matters: eg XXX, 35, 9 Polybius says Hannibal kept his “men from Italy” in
the rear because they were fresh and reliable:- for Livy these men are Italians, relegated there
“incertos socii an hostes essent”. But the rear is the last place to leave doubtful allies or
potential enemies!
Ignorant of sieges!
“All the battle accounts are frighteningly dull variations on an identical theme. First the Romans,
through the enemy’s numerical superiority or through surprise, fall into difficulties; then, through
extraordinary bravery or cleverness of their leaders, they gain the upper hand, and finally kill
40,000 or 35,000 of the enemy, or occasionally fewer….”
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Over-dramatisation or over-simplification
Language of battles is general and stereotypical, monotony only broken by e.g.
o A duel
o Thick mist
o Cavalry fights on foot
o Slaves fight for their freedom
o A shower separates the two sides
prefers emotional and psychological insights, fear, anger, joy of participants and thereby
compensates for lack of factual accuracy
Requirement 3: political activity:
Livy had No personal experience
Literary methods
Livy’s interests and his talent lie pre-eminently in his adaptation of the material in his sources to the
elegant form of Augustan prose.
NB Artistic skill of
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General organization into pentads
Use of variatio – will alternate between themes for variety’s sake
Annalistic method – inevitably leads to predictable lists (magistracies, prodigies etc) at the
beginning of each year cf antiquarian interest common in Augustan age Uses Ciceronian
canons of exaedificatio and exornatio
Chronological order of events, topography, strategy, events, results, analysis of the causes,
estimate of persons involved with biographical detail.
Then he concentrates on enhanced literary effects
Hellenistic influence of rhetorical and tragic history from , he wants not only to instruct and edify,
but also affect reader with “pity and fear”
Recurring images of ira, indignatio, rabies, pavor, trepidatio, maestitia
Aristotelian, episodic style: his episodes have beginning, middle and end
Use of brief introductory sentences in pluperfect, to relegate events prior to the main description
to an earlier time and so to avoid tediously long narration of minor details
Carefully constructed episodes, linked by artistic devices
Rarely dwells on the gory – not to Augustan Age tastes – but often emphasizes terror of
individuals.
Frequent depiction of joy – in made-up crowd scenes
Graphic, pictorial effects achieved by:
o Skilful choice of words
o Asyndeton
o Short clauses
o Accumulation of words and expressions
o Historic presents
o Historic infinitives
o Use of technique of “division” of a crowd and
 Alius…alius
 Partim…partim
Alibi…alibi
Nunc….nunc
Technique of compression of sources, omits anything not relevant to his purpose Aim at
clarification – e.g. of topography, specialized Greek terms
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The Narrative: Literary Genres
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His narration of sieges, constructed in episodes aims at more dramatic and pathetic
treatment than that found in the sources. Tries for “pity and fear” reaction in his
audience.
narration of battles and troop movements aimed at non-specialist audience, so he aims
for clarity, preoccupation with psychological effects in victors and defeated.
narration of conferences: set speeches are important; as are crowd descriptions
dialogue techniques: tries to make discussions brief and address a single issue, often
trying to achieve effect of peripeteia – a change to the reverse of what was expected –
so protagonist may move from confidence to perplexity and dismay
his psychological preoccupations leads him to dwell on “human interest” stories
The Speeches
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“Composed” speeches – part of the rhetorical tradition inherited by Livy
unhistorical but reflect psychological insight
form and division of the speeches influenced by Greek rhetorical theory
speeches in the AUC are mainly of the “deliberative” category (genus deliberativum)
4 basic divisions:
1. introduction (exordium)
2. statement of the themes (katastasis)
3. discussion of the theme (tractatio)
4. conclusion (conclusio)
this conforms well to aims (posited by Cicero) of any speech which are to:
 delectare - gratify
 docere - instruct
 movere – move the emotions
The speeches befit not only the speaker but also the occasion
But sometimes preoccupation with rhetoric leads to speeches being inserted where
inappropriate eg Sophonisba’s speech on threshold of Palace at Cirta – dramatic
supplicatio
Oratio recta make it more dramatic
Livy’s elocutio
Rhetorical adornment such as:
o
o
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vivid description achieved by
 asyndeton
 short clauses
 rapid accumulation of expressions
verbal figures such as
 repetitio (repetition of words, e.g. quid…quid …quid…)
 conversio (consecutive phrases or sentences end with same word)
 antithesis ( balancing of opposed ideas) isocolon exact balancing of syllables
numerically between the two contrasting parts of a sentence)
 chiasmus (a-b-b-a pattern of words)
 congeries verborum ( piling up of two or more words used tautologically)
 zeugma ( single verb expressing different meanings with different objects
 homoioteleuton ( rhyming effect at end of clauses e.g. … essem scirem)
 similes
figures of thought such as
 irony (often introduced by scilicet)
 apostrophe (a direct address to gods or men)
 praeteritio (drawing audience’s attention to something then passing it over)
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praesumptio (an admitted objection to an argument introduced by at, at enim, at
hercule…)
exaggeratio ( transparent hyperbole)
exclamatio – e.g di immortales!
Interrogatio – rhetorical question
Sententia – often used for characterization – exposition of a general truth
Oratio recta – direct speech
See also “Classical Resource Centre” http://www.angelfire.com/art/archictecture/rhetoric.htm for
ready reference of rhetorical devices