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AP Review
Chapters 40-43
Fast Facts
Tissues: groups of cells with a common
structure and function
- epithelial, connective, nervous, and
muscle
Epithelial tissue:
- covers the outside of the body and
lines the organs within the body
- cells are held together by tight
junctions
Fast Facts
Connective tissue:
- functions to bind and support other tissues
- ex. loose connective tissue, adipose tissue,
fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and
blood
Nervous tissue:
- senses stimuli and transmits signals from
one part of the animal to another
- nerve cells, or neurons, are specialized to
transmit signals
Fast Facts
Muscle tissue:
- composed of long cells
called muscle fibers that
are capable of
contracting when
stimulated by nerve
impulses
- skeletal (striated)
muscle, cardiac muscle,
and smooth muscle
Fast Facts
Animals maintain homeostasis, or
internal balance within their systems
Negative feedback: a change in the
variable being monitored triggers the
control mechanism to counteract further
change
Positive feedback: a change in some
variable that triggers mechanisms that
amplify rather than reverse change
Fast Facts
Regulated change: some are cyclical
such as in hormone levels in women
while others are reactions to challenges
of the body (like infections).
Fast Facts
The flow of energy into and out of an
animal can be viewed as a “budget”
- most of the energy taken in is used to
produce ATP to power resting
metabolism and temperature regulation
- excess ATP can be used for
biosynthesis
Fast Facts
The flow of energy into and
out of an animal can be
viewed as a “budget”
- most of the energy taken
in is used to produce ATP
to power resting
metabolism and
temperature regulation
- excess ATP can be used
for biosynthesis
Fast Facts
The oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus initiate
food processing
The stomach stores food and performs
preliminary digestion
- the stomach secretes gastric juices and
mixes them with food by a churning motion
- also present in the gastric juices is pepsin,
an enzyme that begins the hydrolysis of
proteins
Fast Facts
The small intestine is
the major organ of
digestion and
absorption
- the pancreas
produces hydrolytic
enzymes and an
alkaline solution
- the liver produces
bile.
Fast Facts
Most absorption occurs in
the small intestine
- s.i. has a large surface
area due to the folding of
the lining into villi
- each villus has many
microscopic appendages
called microvilli which
increase the rate of
absorption
Fast Facts
In insects blood bathes the
organs directly in an
open circulatory
system
- no distinction between
blood and interstitial fluid
In a closed circulatory
system, blood is
confined to vessels and
is distinct from interstitial
fluid
Fast Facts
Fast Facts
Blood consists of several kinds of cells
suspended in a liquid called plasma
- blood plasma is 90% water
- in the plasma are red blood cells (RBC),
white blood cells (WBC), and platelets
RBC, or erythrocytes, are the most common
blood cells
- main fcn. is to transport O2
- lack nuclei; leaves more space for
hemoglobin
Fast Facts
Gas exchange: the uptake of oxygen and
the release of carbon dioxide
- don’t confuse with (cellular) respiration
Respiratory medium: source of oxygen
- air and water
Respiratory surface: part of an animal
where gases are exchanged
Fast Facts
The arrangement of capillaries in a fish gill
enhances gas exchange and reduces the
energy cost of ventilation
Countercurrent exchange: blood flows in
opposite direction to the movement of water
past the gills
- as blood moves through the capillary, it
becomes more and more loaded with oxygen.
Simultaneously, it encounters water with even
higher oxygen concentrations.
Fast Facts
Tracheal systems and lungs are
respiratory adaptations of terrestrial
animals
Tracheal system: made up of air tubes
that branch throughout the body
Unlike the tracheal systems that branch
throughout the insect’s body, the lungs
are restricted to one location
Sample Question
Structure and function are related in the various organ
systems of animals. Select two of the following four
organ systems in vertebrates: respiratory
digestive
excretory
nervous
For each of the two systems you choose, discuss the
structure and function of two adaptations that aid in
the transport or exchange of molecules (or ions). Be
sure to relate structure to function in each example.
Fast Facts
The skin and mucous membranes provide
first-line barriers to infection
Phagocytic cells, inflammation, and
antimicrobial proteins function early in
infection
Mechanisms depend mainly on
phagocytosis: the ingestion of invading
organisms by certain types of white
cells
Fast Facts
Fast Facts
Lymphocytes provide the specificity and
diversity of the immune system
Two main types: B lymphocytes (B cells)
and T lymphocytes (T cells)
- recognize and respond to particular
microbes and foreign molecules (antigen)
- B cells secrete proteins (antibodies) to
fight antigens
Fast Facts
Antigens interact with
specific lymphocytes,
inducing immune
responses and
immunological memory
- clonal selection: the
cloning of lymphocytes
into effector cells
(short-lived) and
memory cells (longlived)
Fast Facts
The immune system exhibits the feature
of self-tolerance
- major histocompatibility complex
(MHC) are a series of glycoproteins that
mark the body as “self”
- MHC provides a biological fingerprint;
found in studying skin graft rejection
and acceptance
Fast Facts
In response to antigens, the immune
system can mount a humoral response
or a cell-mediated response
Humoral immunity: attack free antigens
- B cells form Plasma cells
- plasma cells secrete antibodies for
an antigen
Fast Facts
Cell-mediated immunity: T cells are
active against viruses and bacteria that
have infected cells
- activated T cells become TH or TC; TH
activate B cells that produce antibodies,
TC destroy infected body cells
Fast Facts
Fact Facts
Homeostasis: the ability of animals to regulate
their internal environment
- thermoregulation: maintaining internal
temperature
- osmoregulation: regulation of the gain and
loss of water
- excretion: removal of nitrogen-containing
waste products
Fact Facts
An animal’s nitrogenous wastes are
correlated with its phylogeny and habitat
- Some animals will excrete ammonia
directly, but many species will convert it
to urea or uric acid
Fact Facts
The urinary system is made-up of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
- the nephron is the functional unit of
the kidneys
- waste is filtered from the blood and
collected as urine in each kidney
Fact Facts
The nephron has three functions:
- glomerular filtration of water and
solutes out of the blood
- tubular reabsorption of water and
molecules from the tubules back into
the blood
- tubular secretion of waste products
into the distal tubule
Fact Facts
The nervous system and hormones
regulate kidney function
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): hormone
primarily responsible for producing urine
and regulating water balance
- an antidiuretic is any chemical that
prevents excessive urine production
Fact Facts
Endocrine system
- helps control chemical composition and volume
- ensures successful growth and development
- gamete production, fertilization, embryo
development and nourishment, and delivery
- regulates metabolism
- regulates response to environmental changes
(starvation, dehydration, temperature)
Fact Facts
Effects of hormones
Synergistic effects: the effects of two or
more hormones complement each
other; response is “summation” of
individual effects
Antagonistic effects: the effect of one
hormone opposes the other
- ex. insulin lowers blood sugar while
glucagon raises it
Sample Questions
Feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to
maintain the steady-state physiological condition
known as homeostasis. Choose three of the
following and for each, explain how feedback
mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
a) Blood glucose concentration
b) Calcium ion concentration
c) Body temperature
d) Osmolarity of the blood