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Foundations in Sports Science
1 Functional anatomy
Check your understanding answers
1 Describe the axial and appendicular skeleton, making reference to the
names, types of bones and their function.
The axial skeleton forms the upright axis of the body and consists of the following:

Cranium which consists of the parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, ethmoid
and sphenoid bones, these are all flat bones and their function is to provide
protection to the brain.

Facial bones consisting of maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, nasal, palatine,
inferior nasal concha, lacrimal and vomer bones. These are composed of
irregular and flat bones, their function is to protect, provide support and
shape, as well as attachment of facial and head muscles.

Hyoid bone, which is a U shaped bone located in the neck.

Vertebral column consisting of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, as
well as the scrum and coccyx. These are irregular bones which provide
support, and attachment for muscles.

Thoracic cage consisting of the sternum and ribs. These are flat bones which
provide protection for the heart and lungs, as well as attachment for muscles.

Auditory ossicles consisting of the malleus, incus and stapes found in the
inner ear.
The appendicular skeleton consists of all the bones which attach to the axial
skeleton, and can be divided into six regions:

Each arm and forearm consists of humerous, ulna, and radius. These are long
bones which provide attachment sites for muscles. They provide the lever in
order for movement to occur.

Each hand consists of 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 5 proximal phalanges, 4
middle phalanges, 5 distal phalanges and 2 sesamoid. These are short bones

Each pectoral girdle consists of 2 clavicles and 2 scapulae. These are flat
bones and provide protection for the heart and lungs.

The pelvis consists of left and right os coxae, which are formed by the fusion
of the illium, ischium and pubis. Comprised of irregular and flat bones,
providing protection for the reproductive organs.

Each leg consists of a femur, tibia, patella and fibula. These are long bones.
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Foundations in Sports Science

Each foot contains 7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 5 proximal phalanges, 4 middle
phalanges, 5 distal phalanges and 2 sesamoid bones. These are short bones.
Whilst flat bones’ main function if to provide protection, the entire skeleton system
provides attachments for skeletal muscles via tendons, and for ligament
attachment. The skeletal system therefore provides a lever system in order to
create joint motion and movement. Support is provided giving the body a
supportive framework for the soft tissue, and providing shape. Bone is a source
of red blood cell production. The red bone marrow found within the bone
produces red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Bone also provides
storage for minerals such as calcium, phosphate (a stored form of phosphorus)
and magnesium, which are essential for growth and bone health. Minerals are
released into the bloodstream as the body requires them. The yellow bone
marrow stores fat.
2 Briefly describe the three classifications of joints.
There are three classifications of joints Synarthrosis (Fibrous/Fixed), Amphiarthrosis
(Cartilaginous/Slightly moveable) and Diarthrosis (Synovial/Freely moveable).
Synarthrosis
Theses bones articulate at fibrous joints and are connected via fibrous connective
tissue. Movement is not available at these joints. They are further divided into 3
categories:
 Suture(s) example – found between the cranial bones
 Gomphosis (-es) example – tooth in its socket
 Syndesmosis (-es) example – Inferior tibiofibular joint
Amphiarthrosis
These bones articulate at cartilaginous joints and are connected by either hyaline
(articular) cartilage forming a primary joint (first sternoclavicular joint), or secondary
joint formed from fibrocartilage (intervertebral disc), which may contain an internal
cavity or nucleus. Movement permitted is greater than at fibrous joints.
Diarthrosis
Synovial joints are unique and allow a greater degree of movement than fibrous and
cartilaginous. Articular cartilage encases the end of bones that articulate at the joint,
allowing freedom of movement and reduction of friction. The joint is surrounded by a
strong fibrous capsule, which is lined with a synovial membrane (synovium)
providing lubrication and nourishment to the articular cartilage. The ligaments attach
bone to bone and further strengthen the fibrous capsule. Ligaments are located
internally and externally to the capsule, and further supported by the surrounding
muscles and strong tendons. Ligaments’ function is to provide joint stability and thus
preventing dislocation. If excessive movement occurs ligaments may become
damaged.
3 Describe the gross structure of a muscle.
The cell membrane of a muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma. Individual muscle
fibres are covered with connective tissue called the endomysium. Muscle fibres are
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Foundations in Sports Science
bundled together into fascicles encased by connective tissue called the perimysium.
All the fascicles are collated together and encased by connective tissue called the
epimysium, which surrounds the whole muscle. The endomysium, perimysium and
epimysium all extend from the deep fascia into a tendon.
4 Describe the micro structure of a muscle.
A muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils which are the length of the muscle fibre.
Myofibrils are made up of sarcomeres, which are units repeated along the length of
the myofibril. Each sarcomere contains actin and myosin, which are in an
overlapping formation. When the muscle receives a stimulus (nerve impulse), actin
and myosin do not change in length, but slide across each other, therefore the
sarcomere shortens. As a resultant factor the myofibrils contract.
The relaxation phase is a passive process, where the cross bridges relax, actin and
myosin return to their original position, thus the sarcomere, and myofilament
lengthen to their original position.
The nerve impulse is based on the ‘all or nothing law’. Each fibre is capable of either
contracting or not contracting, there is no in between. As the athlete begins to fatigue
it is the strength of the contraction which may decrease.
5 Differentiate between the function of a ligament and a tendon.
Endomysium, perimysium and epimysium extend beyond the length of the muscle to
form a tendon. Tendons are strong and have some elastic properties similar to a
muscle. Ligaments connect bone to bone and prevent any unwanted movements at
a joint.
6 Describe lordosis, and the effect on the muscular system.
Lordosis is caused through an exaggeration of the lumbar curve, resulting in an
increased anterior tilt of the pelvis. Hamstrings group and abdominals are
lengthened and need strengthening to facilitate shortening. Erector spinae and
iliopsoas, rectus femoris, sartorius and tensor fascia latae are all shortened and
need lengthening through flexibility exercises such as stretches or yoga.
7 Describe kyphosis and explain which sports may predispose an athlete to
this condition.
Kyphosis is caused through an exaggerated curve in the thoracic vertebrae. The
muscles on the upper back are lengthened such as trapezius, rhomboids and
posterior deltoid and need strengthening to facilitate shortening. Chest muscles such
as pectoralis major and minor, and anterior deltoid are shortened and need,
lengthening through flexibility exercises such as stretches or yoga.
8 Observe a rugby player performing a squat and complete the following table
for the up and down phase.
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Foundations in Sports Science
Up Phase
Joint
Hip
Action
Extension
Knee
Extension
Ankle
Plantar flexion
Muscles
Gluteus maximus,
Semimembranosus,
Semitendinosus and the
Biceps femoris
Rectus femoris, Vastus
medialis, Vastus
intermedius and the
Vastus lateralis
Gastrocnemius, Soleus,
Tibialis posterior, Flexor
hallucis longus, Flexor
digitorum, Peroneus
longus and the
Peroneus brevis
Contraction
Concentric
Concentric
Concentric
Down Phase During the down phase the muscles which contract concentrically during the upward
phase, contract eccentrically during the down phase.
Joint
Action
Muscle
Contraction
Hip
Flexion
Eccentric
Gluteus maximus,
Semimembranosus,
Semitendinosus
and the Biceps
femoris
Knee
Flexion
Rectus femoris,
Vastus medialis,
Vastus intermedius
and the Vastus
lateralis
Eccentric
Ankle
Dorsiflexion
Gastrocnemius,
Soleus, Tibialis
posterior, Flexor
Hallucis longus,
Flexor digitorum,
Peroneus longus
and the Peroneus
brevis
Eccentric
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