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Foundations in Sports Coaching
7 Anatomy and physiology for coaches
Check your understanding answers
1 Describe the axial and appendicular skeleton, making reference to the names,
types of bones and their function.
The axial skeleton, forms the upright axis of the body and consists of the following:

Cranium which consists of the parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, ethmoid and
sphenoid bones whose function is to provide protection to the brain.

Facial bones consisting of maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, nasal, palatine, inferior
nasal concha, lacrimal and vomer bones whose function is to protect, provide
support and shape, as well as attachment of facial and head muscles.

Hyoid bone which is a U shaped bone located in the neck.

Vertebral column consisting of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, as well
as the scrum and coccyx which provide support, and attachment for muscles.

Thoracic cage consisting of the sternum and ribs which provide protection for the
heart and lungs, as well as attachment for muscles.

Auditory ossicles consisting of the malleus, incus and stapes found in the inner ear.
The appendicular skeleton consists of all the bones which attach to the axial skeleton, and
can be divided into six regions:

Each arm and forearm consists of humerous, ulna, and radius. These are long
bones which provide attachment sites for muscles. They provide the lever in order
for movement to occur.

Each hand consists of 8 carpals, 5 metacarpals, 5 proximal phalanges, 4 middle
phalanges, 5 distal phalanges and 2 sesamoid.

Each pectoral girdle consists of a 2 clavicle and 2 scapula. These are flat bones
and provide protection for the heart and lungs.

The pelvis consists of left and right os coxae, which are formed by the fusion of the
illium, ischium and pubis providing protection for the reproductive organs.

Each leg consists of a femur, tibia, patella and fibula.

Each foot contains 7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals, 5 proximal phalanges, 4 middle
phalanges, 5 distal phalanges and 2 sesamoid bones.
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Foundations in Sports Coaching
2 Briefly describe the three classifications of joints.

Synarthrosis: These bones articulate at fibrous joints and are connected via fibrous
connective tissue. Movement is not available at these joints.

Amphiarthrosis: These bones articulate at cartilaginous joints and are connected by
either hyaline cartilage forming a primary joint (first sternoclavicular joint), or
secondary joint formed from fibrocartilage. Movement permitted is greater than at
fibrous joints.

Diarthrosis: Synovial joints are unique and allow a greater degree of movement
than fibrous and cartilaginous. Articular cartilage encases the end of bones that
articulate at the joint, allowing freedom of movement and reduction of friction.
3 Describe the gross and micro structure of a muscle.
Gross structure
The cell membrane of a muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma. Individual muscle
fibres, are covered with connective tissue called the endomysium. Muscle fibres are
bundled together into fascicles encased by connective tissue called the perimysium. All
the fascicles are collated together and encased by connective tissue called the
epimysium, which surrounds the whole muscle. The endomysium, perimysium and
epimysium all extend from the deep fascia into a tendon.
Micro structure
A muscle fibre is made up of myofibrils which are the length of the muscle fibre.
Myofibrils are made up of sarcomeres, which are units repeated along the length of the
myofibril. Each sarcomere contains actin and myosin, which are in an overlapping
formation.
4 Differentiate between the function of a ligament and tendon.
Endomysium, perimysium and epimysium extend beyond the length of the muscle to form
a tendon. Tendons are strong and have some elastic properties similar to a muscle.
Ligaments connect bone to bone and prevent any unwanted movements at a joint.
5 Describe lordosis, and the effect on the muscular system.
Lordosis is caused through an exaggeration of the Lumbar curve, resulting in an increased
anterior tilt of the pelvis. Hamstrings group and abdominals are lengthened and need
strengthening to facilitate shortening. Erector spinae and iliopsoas, rectus femoris,
sartorius and tensor fascia latae are all shortened and need lengthening through flexibility
exercises such as stretches or yoga.
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Foundations in Sports Coaching
6 Describe kyphosis and the effect on the muscular system.
Kyphosis is caused through an exaggerated curve in the thoracic vertebrae. The muscles
on the upper back are lengthened such as trapezius, rhomboids and posterior deltoid and
need strengthening to facilitate shortening. Chest muscles such as pectoralis major and
minor, and anterior deltoid are shortened and need lengthening through flexibility
exercises such as stretches or yoga.
7 Observe a rugby player performing a squat and complete the following table for
the up and down phase.
Up Phase
Hip
Joint
Action
Extension
Knee
Extension
Ankle
Plantar flexion
Muscles
Gluteus maximus,
Semimembranosus,
Semitendinosus and the
Biceps femoris
Rectus femoris, Vastus
medialis, Vastus
intermedius and the
Vastus lateralis
Gastrocnemius, Soleus,
Tibialis posterior, Flexor
hallucis longus, Flexor
digitorum, Peroneus
longus and the Peroneus
brevis
Contraction
Concentric
Concentric
Concentric
Down Phase
During the down phase the muscles which contract concentrically during the upward
phase contract eccentrically during the down phase.
Joint
Action
Muscle
Contraction
Hip
Flexion
Gluteus maximus,
Semimembranosus,
Semitendinosus and
the Biceps femoris
Eccentric
Knee
Flexion
Rectus femoris,
Vastus medialis,
Vastus intermedius
and the Vastus
lateralis
Eccentric
Ankle
Dorsiflexion
Gastrocnemius,
Soleus, Tibialis
posterior, Flexor
Hallucis longus,
Eccentric
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Foundations in Sports Coaching
Flexor digitorum,
Peroneus longus and
the Peroneus brevis
8 Describe the structure of the cardiovascular system.
The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart (cardio), blood vessels and blood
(vascular system). The heart is the body’s pump; its function is to pump blood through the
network of blood vessels including the arteries, arteriole, capillaries, venules and veins.
9 Describe the function of the cardiovascular system
The blood carries the oxygen, nutrients and other essential components to the tissue cells,
whilst products such as carbon dioxide and waste products are carried away from the cells
of the tissues by the blood, and delivered for removal to the kidneys and liver (waste
products) and lungs (carbon dioxide).
Other functions of the cardiovascular system include:
Thermoregulation – To maintain thermal (heat) regulation of the body, particularly
during exercise the cardiovascular system needs to function by altering the blood flow
to tissues to maintain a constant thermal balance. Energy expenditure is also increased
during exercise, requiring alterations in blood flow to facilitate oxygen delivery to
working tissues and removal of the by products such as waste and carbon dioxide. The
cardiovascular uses vasodilation and vasoconstriction to alter blood flow.
o Vasodilation – The dilation of blood vessels to allow an increased flow of blood
for example to working muscles during exercise. This occurs due to the increase
in the diameter of the blood vessel and decrease in resistance to blood flow.
o Vasoconstriction – the constriction of blood vessels to allow a decreased flow of
blood to an area. This occurs due to the narrowing of the diameter of the blood
vessels and increased resistance to blood flow.
10 Describe the structure and function of the respiratory system.
The respiratory system can be described in terms of structure and function. Structurally, it
is referred to as the upper and lower respiratory systems. The upper system includes the
nose and pharynx, whilst the lower system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs. With reference to function, the system is divided into the
conducting and respiratory section. The conducting section comprises the nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles. The function is to filter, warm and moisten the air and
conduct it into the lungs. The respiratory section’s function is to allow gaseous exchange
to occur, and comprises the bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs and alveoli.
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