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5.1: Cell Division and the Cell Cycle
Created by: CK-12
Cell Division
Cell division is the process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as
daughter cells. How this happens depends on whether the cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Cell division is simpler in prokaryotes than eukaryotes because prokaryotic cells themselves are simpler. Prokaryotic
cells have a single circular chromosome, no nucleus, and few other organelles. Eukaryotic cells, in contrast, have
multiple chromosomes contained within a nucleus and many other organelles. All of these cell parts must be duplicated
and then separated when the cell divides.
The Cell Cycle
Cell division is just one of several stages that a cell goes through during its lifetime. The cell cycle is a repeating series
of events that include growth, DNA synthesis, and cell division. The cell cycle in prokaryotes is quite simple: the cell
grows, its DNA replicates, and the cell divides. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle is more complicated.
The diagram in Figure below represents the cell cycle of a eukaryotic cell. As you can see, the eukaryotic cell cycle
has several phases. The mitotic phase (M) actually includes both mitosis and cytokinesis. This is when the nucleus and
then the cytoplasm divide. The other three phases (G1, S, and G2) are generally grouped together as interphase.
During interphase, the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide. These phases are discussed
below.
Interphase
Interphase of the eukaryotic cell cycle can be subdivided into the
following three phases, which are represented in the Figure:

Growth Phase 1 (G1): during this phase, the cell grows
rapidly, while performing routine metabolic processes. It also
makes proteins needed for DNA replication and copies some of its
organelles in preparation for cell division. A cell typically spends
most of its life in this phase. This phase is also known as gap phase
1.

Synthesis Phase (S): during this phase, the cell’s DNA is
copied in the process of DNA replication.

Growth Phase 2 (G2): during this phase, the cell makes
final preparations to divide. For example, it makes additional
proteins and organelles. This phase is also known as gap phase 2.
Control of the Cell Cycle
If the cell cycle occurred without regulation, cells might go from one phase to the next before they were ready. What
controls the cell cycle? How does the cell know when to grow, synthesize DNA, and divide? The cell cycle is
controlled mainly by regulatory proteins. These proteins control the cycle by signaling the cell to either start or delay
the next phase of the cycle. They ensure that the cell completes the previous phase before moving on.
Cancer and the Cell Cycle
Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated. This may happen because a cell’s DNA
becomes damaged. Damage can occur due to exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic chemicals. Cancerous cells
generally divide much faster than normal cells. They may form a mass of abnormal cells called a tumor. The rapidly
dividing cells take up nutrients and space that normal cells need. This can damage tissues and organs and eventually
lead to death.
5.2: Chromosomes and Mitosis
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are coiled structures made of DNA and proteins. Chromosomes are the form of the genetic material of a
cell during cell division. During other phases of the cell cycle, DNA is not coiled into chromosomes. Instead, it exists
as a grainy material called chromatin.
Chromatids and the Centromere
DNA condenses and coils into the familiar X-shaped form of a chromosome, shown in Figure below, only after it has
replicated. Because DNA has already replicated, each chromosome actually consists of two identical copies. The two
copies are called sister chromatids. They are attached to one another at a region called the centromere.
Chromosomes and Genes
The DNA of a chromosome is encoded with genetic instructions for making
proteins. These instructions are organized into units called genes. Most genes
contain the instructions for a single protein. There may be hundreds or even
thousands of genes on a single chromosome.
Human Chromosomes
Human cells normally have two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from
each parent. There are 23 chromosomes in each set, for a total of 46
chromosomes per cell. Each chromosome in one set is matched by a
chromosome of the same type in the other set, so there are actually 23 pairs of chromosomes per cell. Each pair consists
of chromosomes of the same size and shape that also contain the same genes. The chromosomes in a pair are known as
homologous chromosomes.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
During mitosis, when the nucleus divides, the two chromatids that make up each chromosome separate from each other
and move to opposite poles of the cell.
Mitosis is the phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle that occurs between DNA replication and the formation of two
daughter cells.
Mitosis occurs in four phases as shown in the figure above. The phases are called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
Prophase
The first and longest phase of mitosis is prophase. During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the
nuclear envelope, or membrane, breaks down. In animal cells, the centrioles near the nucleus begin to separate and
move to opposite poles of the cell. As the centrioles move, a spindle starts to form between them. The spindle, shown
in the Figure, consists of fibers made of microtubules. Kinetochores on the spindle attach to the centromeres of sister
chromatids.
Metaphase
During metaphase, spindle fibers attach to the centromere of each pair of
sister chromatids (see Figure below). The sister chromatids line up at the
equator, or center, of the cell. The spindle fibers ensure that sister chromatids
will separate and go to different daughter cells when the cell divides.
Anaphase
During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and the centromeres
divide. The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of
the spindle fibers. This is like reeling in a fish by shortening the
fishing line. One sister chromatid moves to one pole of the cell,
and the other sister chromatid moves to the opposite pole. At the
end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a complete set of
chromosomes.
Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and form
chromatin. This prepares the genetic material for directing the
metabolic activities of the new cells. The spindle also breaks
down, and new nuclear membranes form.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division in eukaryotes as well as prokaryotes. During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm
splits in two and the cell divides.