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MIDTERM III STUDY GUIDE
GEOL 1080 • INTRODUCTION TO OCEANOGRAPHY
FALL 2008
The fine print: this outline is not meant to be fully comprehensive. This lists all the major topics we discussed in class, but
it does not completely cover everything involved with every topic, so use this as a guide to your notes, and to what to
look at in the text.
The exam will cover the last part of chapter 5 (density variations and transmission of light and sound in seawater), air-sea
interactions (chapter 6, including global warming), and ocean circulation (chapter 7) through surface currents and
upwelling (thermohaline circulation will not be on the exam). and it will be available in the CTC Saturday 11/22,
Monday 11/24 and Tuesday 11/25 ($3 late day). To qualify for insurance, you must complete the questions on this
study guide and the recommended questions from chapters 6 & 7 and hand them in to the College of Science and
Health office by Tuesday 11/25 at 1 pm.
1) Variations in salinity
a) Fresh water - Decent tap water contains < 0.8‰, good tap water is < 0.6‰ and good bottled water is < 0.3‰.
b) Great Salt Lake is about 280‰ – about 9 times more saline than typical seawater.
c) Varies between 33 and 38‰ in open ocean
i) As low as 10‰ and as high as 42‰ in some area. Influx of ‘fresh’ river water, removal of water by
evaporation causes the variations (see Principle of Constant Proportions).
ii) High salinity at low latitudes (high evap.); low salinity where lots of river run-off (Alaska).
iii) In general, salinity is a balance between addition and removal of dissolved solids, and addition and
removal of pure water. Very constant over time – only minor variations in total salinity.
d) Variations with depth
i) Below about 1 km depth, salinity is very consistent worldwide: evaporation and runoff don’t effect deep
ocean.
ii) But at high latitudes relatively low salinity at surface, whereas at low latitudes relatively high salinity at
surface.
iii) Depth range over which there is gradient from surface conditions to stable depth conditions is called the
halocline.
ii. Seawater density
1) Depends upon temperature and salinity; temperature is by far most important.
2) Understand and be able to sketch the figures on page 155 of text.
3) Three distinct zones with depth at low to mid - latitudes, where surface water is warmer and lower density than
deeper waters.
a) Mixed surface layer
b) Upper water zone. Not mixed and does not mix with the deep water below
c) Deep water below 1000m – fairly homogenous in temperature and salinity, but does not mix with water above.
iii. Transmission of light through seawater
1) Know what electromagnetic radiation is.
2) Light does not penetrate very deep – 45% makes it to 1m; 16% makes it to 10m; only 1% makes it to 100m. If you
want to photosynthesize, live near the surface!
3) Blue light penetrates best; hence water free of particulate matter and plankton looks blue.
4) Particulate matter and plankton scatter yellow-green light, making water look more that color where they are
abundant.
iv. Sound transmission in seawater
1) Sound travels quickly and efficiently (less decrease in volume as it travels) in water. 1450 m/s (4750 ft/s).
four times faster than in air.
2) Velocity of sound travel through water increases with temperature, salinity, and pressure.
3) Sound waves refract (the direction of travel changes/bends) when their speed changes as they pass through
water with different characteristics (see 2 above). Refraction causes waves to bend towards areas where they
travel more slowly.
4) Temp, salinity and pressure combine to create a low velocity horizon at about 1000 m depth – called the
‘SOFAR’ channel [Sound Fixing and Ranging].
a) Sound gets trapped in this layer/channel due to refraction.
b) Causes sound to be able to travel and be heard at large distances. May be used by marine animals like
whales.
c) Has been used to estimate average temperatures of oceans, because sound velocity varies with water
temperature.
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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2. Air – Sea Interactions (Chapter 6)
a. Energy from the Sun
i. Basic driving force behind air and ocean circulation
1) At high latitudes there is less heating (regardless of time of year).
a) At high latitudes there is less incident radiation per m2 area
b) At high latitudes there is more reflection on average
2) Amount of solar heating at any given spot varies with the seasons
3) More heat reaches surface at tropical latitudes than escapes back into space and vice versa in the arctic and
Antarctic. Tropics do not continually warm (and high latitudes don’t continually get colder) because the
excess heat from the tropics is transferred to polar regions by atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
b. The Atmosphere
i. Some basics
1) Composition: mostly N2 (78%) along with some O2 (21%).
2) Divided into troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere. All weather happens in troposphere – that’s what we
are concerned with.
3) In troposphere, temperature decreases with elevation.
4) Warm air is less dense and rises; cool air is more dense and sinks
5) Convection cell concept
6) Air flows horizontally from regions of high pressure to regions of low pressure.
7) Rising air leaves low pressure at surface; sinking air creates high pressure at surface
ii. Air movement on the Earth
1) Hypothetical nonspinning Earth: Two large convection cells that redistribute heat that is input onto Earth by
Sun
2) But Earth spins, which causes The Coriolis Effect
a) Because the Earth is spinning, objects traveling across Earth appear to curve to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
b) Effect is greatest at poles and least at Equator (goes to zero actually).
3) Combination of effects described in nonspinning Earth example and Coriolis effect create circulation cells
and wind belts.
a) Air cannot simply move from poles to equator – Coriolis effect causes it to curve across Earth’s surface.
See figure 6-10.
b) Three convection/circulation cells per hemisphere
c) There is a surface wind belt associated with each cell –
i) NE and SE Trade winds
ii) Prevailing Westerlies (N & S)
iii) Polar Easterlies (N & S)
iv) Doldrums, Horse Latitudes and Polar fronts at cells boundaries. Doldrums and polar fronts are
sites of enhanced precipitation. Doldrums referred to as ‘Intertropical Convergence Zone’ or
ITCZ.
d) Be able to draw figure 6-10.
iii. Relatively localized air movements: surface high and low pressure centers, land and sea breezes
1) Surface low pressure centers – air is rising, flowing inwards towards center at and near ground surface.
Coriolis effect deflects motion; in N. Hemisphere, counter-clockwise ‘cyclonic’ flow develops. Be able to
draw this.
2) Surface high pressure centers – air is sinking, flowing outwards from center at and near ground surface.
Coriolis effect deflects motion; in N. Hemisphere, clockwise ‘anticyclonic’ flow. Be able to draw this.
iv. Sea (and land) breezes.
1) Heating of land during day causes air to rise, sucks air inland off the water – this is the ‘sea breeze’ that often
kicks in late on warm days.
2) Cooling of land during night causes air to sink, flow out over ocean. This is a night time, early morning ‘land
breeze.’
v. Storms
1) Mid-latitude storms –
a) Broadly speaking, caused by collisions of cold and warm masses of air along the polar front. When air
masses collide, warm air rises, which causes it to cool, water condenses, it rains/snows.
b) Cold front forms if the mass of cold air is moving more rapidly than the warm air mass, and the cold air
mass forces its way underneath warm air.
c) Warm front forms if the mass of warm air is moving most rapidly and forces its way over the cold air.
2) Tropical Cyclones –
a) Hurricanes in Americas, typhoons in W. Pacific, and cyclones in Indian ocean
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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b) Low pressure centers that initiate in along the equator, migrate north or south
c) Take advantage of warm ocean and warm moist air, which provides the energy; Coriolis effect, which
causes the system to spin
d) Move towards the west on the trade winds, and to the north or south away from equator (depending on
hemisphere).
e) Transport large amounts of water vapor, and thus energy northwards away from equator
f) Air moves to center, spiral upwards. Rising air cools, water condenses, precipitates. Warm water provides
energy to generate lift.
g) Damage:
i) Winds
ii) Storm surge – the big killer
(1) As storm approaches coast, winds push water onto land
(2) Extreme low pressures allow water level to be higher (atmosphere is pushing down with more
pressure elsewhere, so water level rises under the storm)
(3) Surges can be as high as 12 m; a couple to a few meters is common.
(4) Example: Galveston, TX, 9/8/1900. 6m surge, 6000 deaths, most by drowning. Almost no
warning.
(5) Andrew, 8/1992, $20 billion damage; 160 mph winds; ‘only’ 54 deaths.
vi. Greenhouse Effect
1) Sun heats the Earth by radiating visible light energy to Earth. Earth sends energy to space as infrared
radiation, which keeps Earth from progressively heating over time.
2) Gasses in the atmosphere inhibit escape of infrared radiation, just as glass windows of a greenhouse do. Glass
& atmos. let light in easily – interior gets heated. However, glass & atmos inhibit escape of infrared
radiation (and heat). Car and greenhouse get warm as a result. However, the amount infrared radiation
produced increases with temperature, and eventually the car, greenhouse, or earth is hot enough that it
produces enough infrared so that the fraction that escapes through the glass or atmosphere is equal in energy
to the amount of incident solar radiation. In this way the temperature in the greenhouse and on Earth remains
nearly constant.
3) The gasses in the atmosphere that do this are CO2, H2O, CH4; these are called the greenhouse gasses.
4) Without these gasses and this effect, Earth surface would average about –20oC instead of 13oC. Venus’ surface
temperature is about 470oC due to large amounts of CO2 in its atmosphere.
5) Climate Change is the idea that the climate is changing, which it is. Global Warming is the related and more
specific idea that the climate is getting warmer, which it is.
6) An important question is why is the climate is warming? If amount of greenhouse gasses increases,
greenhouse effect increases, earth warms. By burning fossil fuels, humans have produced increased the
amount of CO2 in the atmosphere by over 30%. Nearly all data indicates that these human-produced
greenhouse gasses are the primary cause of current global warming, although natural climate change may
also be playing a role. For the past 1 million years, ice ages have occurred on a 100,000 year cycle and for
1.5 million years before that, ice ages occurred on a 41,000 year cycle. CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
has varied on exactly the same cycle, with larger concentrations of CO2 having occurred when the Earth’s
climate was warmer (“interglacials”). Prior to the industrial revolution, CO2 levels were the same as during
past interglacials. However, during the past ~150 years, CO2 levels have increased by ~30% due to burning
of fossil fuels by humans; at the same time global temperatures have risen 1 to 2oC which is much more than
they rose in the previous centuries; this is some of the powerful evidence for the human contribution to
global warming.
7) Ocean role in CO2 concentrations: oceans absorb CO2 by the reaction CO2 + H2O => H+ + HCO3-. This
acidifies the oceans, and calcite is dissolved (CaCO3 + H+ => Ca2+ + HCO3-)
8) Our useage of fossil fuels and production of greenhouse gasses?
a) 7 x 109 tons per year, net, put into atmosphere by humans.
b) Burning rain forests at rate of about 1 acre per second.
c) How much CO2 is produced when you burn gasoline? Gasoline is (idealized) octane, C8H18. Burning of
octane in an internal combustion engine (i.e., in a car), follows the reaction: C8H18 + 12½ O2 => 8(CO2)
+ 9(H2O) [gasoline + oxygen gas combined by burning forms carbon dioxide gas and water , and in the
process a lot of heat is released]. Thus, 8 CO2 molecules are produced for each octane molecule that is
burned. If you compare the weight of CO2 and octane, you find that burning 1 lb of gasoline produces
3.1 lbs of CO2. A gallon of gas weighs about 6 pounds.
d) Tremendous revenues and profits are generated in the fossil fuel extraction industry. ExxonMobil had net
profits of approximately $40 billion the past two years and holds the record among all privately held
companies for the largest net profit in a quarter (3 months) of approximately 11 billion dollars.
9) Fossil fuel resources
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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a) Coal – cheap, still fairly plentiful. Creates more pollution than oil or natural gas; pollutants include CO2,
NOx, Sulfur (acid rain), mercury. Produces more CO2 than oil or natural gas. Much electricity in the
U.S. is produced in coal-fired power plants; ~97% of electricity in Utah comes from coal.
b) Petroleum (oil). Has pollution and supply issues. Burning 1 lb of gasoline produces about 3.1 lbs of CO2,
and a gallon of gas weighs about 6 lbs. Supply issue revolves around production rates more than total
reserves, and basic economic theory of natural resource production indicates that we are near the
maximum production rates that we will ever have.
i) Formation requires (1) Source rock, (2) thermal maturation and migration, (3), reservoir rock, (4) seal
rock, and (5) a trap. Be sure to read the handout.
ii) Largest reserves are in the Middle East (1 to 2 trillion barrels probable). There are large reserves in
North America and former Soviet Union countries.
iii) U.S. consumes about 7 billion barrels annually; global consumption is about 28 billion barrels.
c) Natural Gas. Very little toxic pollution, but produces large amounts of CO2 (although somewhat less CO2
than petroleum or coal. Many people strongly prefer its use over coal in electrical power plants.
d) Biofuels. Ethanol (alcohol) and biodiesel are the main types. Currently in the U.S., it takes approximately
1 gallon of petroleum to produce 1 gallon of ethanol, so CO2 emissions are not reduced by ethanol use.
However, mixing small amounts of ethanol with gasoline can improve combustion of the gas in cars
which can significantly reduce pollution and this is done in many parts of the U.S. Ethanol is
successfully produced in Brazil (but with some drawbacks). Ethanol-powered motors produce more
horsepower than those fueled by gasoline.
e) Wind. Clean, has potential to provide a significant proportion of electrical power in the U.S. if we invest
in it and are willing to establish numerous large ‘windmill farms.’
f) Solar. Expensive initial investment is a barrier to its widespread use, although it has become cost effective
in a significant number of applications.
g) Nuclear. Potential for devastating accidents and disposal of highly radioactive waste (that has potential to
be used in bombs) has made it prohibitively expensive to build additional plants in the U.S., although it
currently supplies a significant proportion of our electricity nationally. New technology and/or changes
in political will may lead to a comeback.
h) Hydrogen and electric cars. The electricity or hydrogen must be produced at a power plant utilizing coal,
natural gas, nuclear, wind, or solar energy. However, electric cars do offer an efficiency advantage
(meaning good mileage per lb of CO2 produced when electricity is generated using natural gas or even
coal), and hydrogen cars may as well when more fully developed, and solar or wind power could be
used. Also, there can be advantages to producing the power at plants located outside major population
centers.
3. Ocean Circulation Chapter 7.
a. They fundamentally are driven by temperature differences (via winds in the case of surface currents); they transport heat
from the equator to the poles. 2/3 of transfer is done by winds (with latent heat of water) and about 1/3 by the
currents.
i. Surface currents. These are horizontal movements that occur in the pycnocline They mimic the major wind belts.
ii. Deep ocean currents. These are driven by density differences. These currents keep the deep ocean very well
mixed
b. Ocean exploration: The Fram and the Jeanette (captained by DeLong). Know the basics of these explorations and what
we learned scientifically from them (see box 7-2 p. 206).
c. Global pattern of surface currents.
i. Driven by winds, for the most part. But continents get in the way, and Coriolis effect plays a role.
ii. Ekman Spiral. Understand this and be able to draw it. See the text.
iii. Subtropical Gyres.
1) Driven by tradewinds and prevailing westerlies, combined with continents getting in the way and Coriolis
effect.
2) There are 5 – N. & S Atlantic, N & S Pacific, Indian
3) Have component currents
a) Equatorial currents.
b) Western Boundary Currents. Strong currents due to western intensification.
i) Gulf Stream
(1) A major warm, western boundary current
(2) Know the major details of this current – location, size, speed, impacts, eddies, etc.
c) Prevailing westerlies and Coriolis bend western boundary currents towards east. I called these ‘return
currents’ in lecture. North Atlantic current, North Pacific current, west wind drift.
d) Eastern Boundary Currents: These are cold currents. California current. These are much more diffuse
currents than western boundary currents.
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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4) Eastern Counter Currents along equator – not part of the gyres
iv. Geostrophic Currents & Gyres
1) The Coriolis Effect causes water to curve towards the centers of the gyres, so that water is up to 2 m higher in
gyre center. Gravity causes water to flow downhill away from the gyre center. The coriolis effect and
gravity balance. The actual path of the water that results is the Geostrophic current.
v. Upwelling & downwelling. (in association with surface currents and winds)
1) Very important to life – upwelling brings nutrients to the surface.
2) Caused by convergence or divergence of currents – know where.
3) coastal effects – water moving towards coast causes downwelling, and vice versa. Gyre movements and
coriolis effect can create upwelling. Where is this important?
4) Upwelling & downwelling happen most easily at high latitudes where there is little variation in water
temperature and density with depth.
vi. Antarctic (Southern Ocean) currents
1) No continents blocking east-west flow
2) east wind drift, west wind drift or Antarctic Circumpolar Gyre, zones of convergence, divergence, and
abundant marine life from upwelling and current mixing
vii. El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
1) ENSO refers to currents in equatorial Pacific sometimes moving east to west, and at other times stalling or
reversing and flowing west to east; hence the word ‘oscillation’ in the name.
2) It is most easily detected by looking at sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies for the equatorial Pacific
a) Sea surface temperature refers to the temperature of surface waters of the sea, and can be detected
accurately over broad areas via satellites.
b) Anomaly is change from usual; in this case it is a measured temperature minus the average temperature.
Hence, an SST anomaly tells us whether the water in a place is warmer, cooler, or the same as usual.
3) Usual conditions
a) Southeast tradewinds drive southern equatorial current from east to west;
b) High pressure exists near 30oS, coast of S. America, drives tradewinds.
c) carries cool eastern boundary current (Peru current) waters to west.
d) Water warms as it flows along the equator; water is warm at equator in western pacific (but cold in eastern
pacific)
e) Peru current, westward Eq. Current creates upwelling along S. American coast (productive fisheries based
on phytoplankton, anchovies).
4) El Nino (warm phase of ENSO)
a) High pressure fails; Tradewinds fail – can even reverse; Southern equatorial current fails; water along the
equator and off Peru warms by solar heating, and warm water in western pacific even migrates to east
b) Waters along S. American coast warm markedly – up to 9oC!! Strong positive SST anomaly along
Peruvian coast and eastern equatorial Pacific.
c) Upwelling shuts off, fisheries crater.
d) Eastward water flow usually starts in fall, reaches eastern pacific midwinter
e) Recent large ENSO events were 1982 – 1983 and1997 – 1998 (1/1/82 to 12/23/83 & 1/1/97 to 3/10/98
roughly). 82-83 was strongest on record.
f) Wet conditions in southern and central California, drought in Pacific NW.
5) La Nina phase (cold phase of ENSO)
a) Essentially the opposite of El Nino phase
b) Can be thought of as ‘extra strong’ normal conditions, meaning:
c) Strong SE (& NE) Tradewinds
d) Strong Pacific equatorial currents
e) Anomalously cool water in equatorial Pacific – negative (cool) SST anomaly in equatorial Pacific.
f) Generally reverse local effects, including drought in SW and SE U.S., wet in Pacific NW U.S.
Study Questions
If you want to turn these in, please be sure to answer them on separate sheets of paper and staple everything together! Note that if
you score below C- on the exam you can receive points equivalent to a C- by doing these questions AND the suggested problems from the
back of the appropriate chapters AND turning them all in before the end of the testing period. The suggested chapter problems are listed
on the syllabus (which you received in class and is available on the course website).
1.
2.
3.
Graph typical ocean water temperature vs. depth for both high and low latitudes. Label all the key elements of the graph.
Graph typical ocean water salinity vs. depth for both high and low latitudes. Label all the key elements of the graph.
Graph typical ocean water density vs. depth for both high and low latitudes. Label all the key elements of the graph,
including the three horizons of low latitude water.
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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10.
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32.
What is wave refraction?
What is the SOFAR channel, and how does refraction of sound waves create it?
What is the basic driver of atmospheric and oceanic circulation?
If neither the oceans nor the atmosphere circulated globally, how would the typical daily high temperature in Ecuador
change? How would the typical daily high temperature in Antarctica change?
The Sun adds heat energy to the Earth each day. Why doesn’t the Earth get much hotter with each passing day, as a result
(ignoring global warming)?
What are the three most abundant gases in the atmosphere, and what percentage of the atmosphere does each constitute?
What is the troposphere? How does temperature vary with height in the troposphere?
How does the Sun cause air to rise, and indirectly, to sink?
What creates regions of high pressure at the Earth’s surface? What creates regions of low pressure at the Earth’s surface?
Differences in what physical property of air between places on the Earth’s surface causes horizontal movements of air
(winds)?
Combine your answers to questions 6 through 8 to explain how the Sun causes horizontal winds on the Earth’s surface.
Draw the model of the major air circulation patterns on Earth. Include the major convection cells, wind belts, regions of
high and low surface pressure, and regions of enhanced and relatively little precipitation. Be able to draw this model from
memory.
Show how cyclonic flow develops around a low pressure area in the northern hemisphere by drawing and labeling an
illustration.
Show how anti -cyclonic flow develops around a high pressure area in the northern hemisphere by drawing and labeling
an illustration.
Explain what a sea breeze is, and how they form. Use a sketch to aid your explanation.
Why is the duration of precipitation at a particular location from a passing cold front usually shorter than from a warm
front? Use labeled sketches of both a warm and cold front to illustrate your explanation. Be sure you understand both
types of fronts.
Sketch a mid-latitude cyclone with a warm front and a cold front.
How do tropical cyclones differ from midlatitude storms?
How do tropical cyclones cause sea level to rise?
List the factors that favor formation of tropical cyclones in the tropics.
What is the most deadly aspect of tropical cyclones?
How are hurricanes ranked in the U.S.?
What is the difference between a typhoon and a hurricane?
Using a sketch and sentences, explain how storm surge along a coast varies in relation to the position of a hurricane eye.
Explain the greenhouse effect, including the major greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
How would Earth’s climate be different if there weren’t a greenhouse effect?
How are humans affecting the climate? Explain.
Explain some of the evidence that humans are making a significant contribution to global warming.
How many pounds of CO2 are produced by burning one gallon of gasoline?
33. Why are many people concerned that humans are adding large amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere? Answer this using
your knowledge of the Greenhouse Effect and variations in CO2, climate temperature and glacial cycles in the past
100,000 to 2 million years.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
How much petroleum does the U.S. and the world consume each year?
What are the two main types of ocean currents, and what is the main driving force behind each?
Explain and sketch the Ekman Spiral.
Describe the voyage of the Fram. In your description, include the motivation for the trip, the plan, when they sailed, how
long they were trapped in ice, and the primary scientific discoveries made on the voyage. (see the textbook for help with
this).
Name all of the subtropical gyres, and which direction they rotate.
Which wind belts drive the subtropical gyres?
What other two (or three) factors, besides the wind belts, give rise to the subtropical gyres.
What is the significance of upwelling to marine life? Explain.
Draw the ocean surface currents around Antarctica. Include the east wind drift, west wind drift or Antarctic Circumpolar
Gyre, zones of convergence, divergence, and abundant marine life from upwelling and current mixing
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
How might surface ocean circulation differ if there were no continents?
Of the four component currents to each gyre that we discussed in class, which is generally the strongest?
What effect does the Gulf Stream have on Europe?
Explain how eddies (“rings”) form to the north of the Gulf stream; be sure to describe the temperature of the water in
them, and the direction that they spin.
Why is there upwelling along much of the coast of California?
Name and explain two major impacts of upwelling along California.
Where on Earth is upwelling that is caused by diverging currents important?
What does the acronym ENSO stand for?
Explain what a SST Anomaly is; include the appropriate equation in your explanation.
Explain the El Nino phase of ENSO. Include the causes and effects on equatorial Pacific currents and water temperature
in your explanation.
Explain the La Nina phase of ENSO. Include the causes and effects on equatorial Pacific currents and water temperature
in your explanation.
What are the major atmospheric and oceanographic changes (e.g., pressure, movement, temperature, fisheries) along the
tropical Pacific that cause and result from ENSO. [Great additional ENSO info is available at http://www.noaa.gov].
GEOL 1080, Introduction to Oceanography, Midterm 3 Study Guide, Professor Bunds
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