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Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Headings Vocabulary Important Info ●Anatomy oscience of structure orelationships revealed by dissection imaging techniques ●Physiology oscience of body Clinical Observational Techniques ● Palpation o feel body surface with hands pulses and breathing rates ● Auscultation o listen to body sounds with stethoscope abnormal fluid in lungs ● Percussion o tap on body surface and listen to echo Levels of Organization ● Chemical ● Cellular ● Tissue ● Organs ● System Level ● Organismic Level Levels of Structural Organization ● Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level ● Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body ● Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task ● 4 basic tissue o epithelium o muscle o connective tissue o nerve ● Organ Level o grouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure with a specific function. ● Organ System o collection of related organs with a common function o sometimes an organ is part of more than one system ● Organismic Level - one living individual. Interactions of Body Systems ● Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System o Skin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone growth o Bone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist infection. Life Processes ● Metabolism = sum of all chemical processes o breakdown of large molecules into small o building new structural components (proteins) o providing chemical energy for cells ● Responsiveness o detect & respond to changes in internal or external environment o some typical responses muscle contraction, electrical ● Movement o any structural level o body, organ, cell or cell component ● Growth o increase in number or size of cells or the material found between cells ● Differentiation o specialization of cells for a specific function o stem cells give rise to cells that specialize ● Reproduction o formation of new cells or Homeostatis ● Maintaining the internal environment within physiological limits (internal balance) ● First described by French physiologist, 1813-1878 ● Process named by Walter Cannon, 1871-1945 ● Example o blood glucose level is kept within narrow range 70110/100ml Homeostasis of Body Fluids ● Delineation of fluid compartments ● Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells ● Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid Plasma = fluid portion of blood ● Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments o nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across Control of Homeostasis ●Homeostasis is continually being disrupted by: o External Stimuli intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen o Internal Stimuli psychological stresses exercise ●Disruptions are usually mild & temporary ●If homeostasis is not Neural and Endocrine Controls ● Maintaining a controlled condition o sensory receptors detect change in a monitored variable o nervous system and/or endocrine system responds ● Ex: Control of blood gas level o exercise increases blood CO2 levels o sensory receptors detect change o nervous system increases heart and breathing rates to remove excess CO2 o adrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart Components of Feedback Loop ● Receptor o monitors a controlled condition ● Control Center o determines next action ● Effector o receives directions from the control center o produces a response that changes controlled condition Negative & Positive Feedback Loops ●Negative Feedback Loop o original stimulus reversed o most feedback systems in the body are negative o used for conditions that need frequent adjustment o body temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure ●Positive Feedback Loop o original stimulus intensified o normal childbirth Homeostasis of Blood Pressure ● Pressure receptors in walls of certain arteries detect an increase in BP o Blood Pressure = force of blood on walls of vessels ● Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels ● Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter) ● BP returns to normal Positive Feedback during Childbirth ● Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to brain ● Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream ● Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully ● More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc. ● Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch Homeostatic Imbalances ● Disorder = abnormality of function ● Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct… o Symptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea o Signs: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor such as rash or fever ● Diagnosis: skill of distinguishing one disease from another ● Epidemiology: how disease is transmitted ● Pharmacology: how drugs used to treat disease Basic Anatomical Terminology ● Regions of the body ● Anatomical position ● Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms Anatomical Position ● Standardized position describing directional terms o standing upright o facing the observer, head level o eyes facing forward o feet flat on the floor o arms at the sides o palms turned forward ● Prone Position = lying face down ● Supine Position = lying face up Common Regional Names She is standing in the Anatomical Position ● Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word. ● Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms Planes & Sections ●Plane: imaginary flat surface that passes through the body. ●Section: one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it. Sagittal Plane ● Sagittal Plane o divides the body or an organ into left and right sides ● Midsagittal Plane o produces equal halves ● Parasagittal Plane o produces unequal halves Other Planes and Sections ● Frontal or Coronal Plane o divides the body or an organ into front (anterior) and back (posterior) portions ● Transverse or Horizontal Plane o cross-sectional o divides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions ● Oblique Plane o some combination of 2 other planes Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed) ● Horizontal Plane ● Frontal Plane ● Midsagittal Plane Major Directional Terms ●Dorsal & Ventral ● Dorsal or Posterior o Back of the body o Brain is posterior to the forehead. ● Ventral or Anterior Superior & Inferior ● Superior o Towards the head o Eyes are superior to mouth. ● Inferior o Front of the body o Away from head o Sternum is anterior to the heart. o Stomach is inferior to the heart. Proximal or Distal ● Proximal o nearer to attachment of the limb to the trunk o The knee is proximal to the ankle. ● Distal o farther from attachment of the limb to the trunk o The wrist is distal to the elbow. Medial or Lateral ● Medial o nearer to midline of body o Heart lies medial to lungs ● Lateral o farther from midline of body o The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand. ●Brain is posterior to the forehead. ●Eyes are superior to mouth. ●Stomach is inferior to the heart. ●Sternum is anterior to the heart. ●The knee is proximal to the ankle. ●Heart lies medial to lungs ●The wrist is distal to the elbow. ●The thumb is on the lateral side of the Dorsal Body Cavity ●Near dorsal surface of body ●2 subdivisions oCranial Cavity holds the brain formed by skull oVertebral or Spinal Canal contains the spinal cord formed by vertebral column ●Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal body cavity Ventral Body Cavity ● Near ventral surface of body ● Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in the ventral cavity ● 2 subdivisions o Thoracic Cavity: above diaphragm o Abdominopelvic Cavity: below diaphragm ● Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle ● Organs called viscera Abdominopelvic Cavity ● Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm ● Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis Thoracic Cavity ● Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle ● Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum ● Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungs o "middle" section of the chest cavity Mediastinum ● Area behind the breastbone ● Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus. Serous Membranes ●Thin slippery membrane lines body cavities not open to the outside o parietal layer lines walls of cavities (outside) o visceral layer covers viscera (internal organs) within the cavities ●Serous fluid Pleural & Pericardial Cavities ● Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs ● Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall ● Visceral Pericardium: covers heart ● Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac Peritoneum ● Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera (organs) ● Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants ● Describe locations of organs or source of pain ● Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel Medical Imaging ●Allows visualization of structures without surgery ●Useful for confirmation of diagnosis ●Examples of imaging techniques Conventional Radiography ● A single burst of xrays ● Produces 2-D image on film ● Known as radiography or xray ● Poor resolution of soft tissues ● Major use is Osteology: study of bones Computed Tomography (CT Scan) ● Moving x-ray beam ● Image produced on a video monitor of a crosssection through body ● Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detail o kidney & gallstones ● Multiple scans used to build 3D views Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA) ● Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels ● Before and after images compared with a computer program ● Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor Ultrasound (US) ● High-frequency sound waves emitted by hand-held device ● Safe, noninvasive & painless ● Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor ● Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) ● Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field ● Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field ● Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor ● Can not use on patient with metal in their body ● Reveals fine detail within soft tissues Positron Emission Tomography(PET) ● Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body ● Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays ● Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image