Download Review for Quiz 2

Review for Quiz 2
Chapter 4-6 (Modules 12-20), Pages 138-247
Essentials of Understanding Psychology- Sixth Edition
PSY110 Psychology
© Richard Goldman
October 26, 2006
Consciousness
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Awareness of sensations, thoughts, and
feelings at the moment
Altered states of consciousness:
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Sleeping and Dreaming
Drug use
Hypnosis
Stages of Sleep
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5 Distinct stages:
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Stage 1 – Brief transition period – Rapid low amplitude
brain waves
Stage 2 – Longest period of sleep – Slower more
regular brain waves – brief periods of sleep spindles
Stage 3 – Even slower and larger brain waves
Stage 4 – Slowest and largest brain waves – Only
achieved during the first early part of the night
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) – Dreaming occurs,
increase in hart rate & blood pressure – accounts for
~20% of sleep time.
Complete cycle ~ 90 minutes
How much sleep is necessary
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Changes with age
The older you get the less you sleep
We currently sleep about 3 hrs less/night
than 100 yrs ago
Sleep deprivation causes a reduction in
cognitive ability & recent memory
Sleep deprivation does not have a lasting
effect
Teen Sleep
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Teens tend to get sleepier later (11:00pm)
and wake later
Function & Meaning of Dreams
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Nightmares – common – people often have about 24 per year
Most dreams are about what you do
Meaning of Dream
 Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory – Freud
 Latent Content of dreams - Actual Meaning
 Manifest Content of dreams – overt dream
 Interpretations tend to be sexually oriented
Research shows that emotion & motivation parts of the brain are
active during REM sleep.
Dream-for-Survival Theory – Dreaming reprocess recent events,
sifts and strengthens memory
Activation-Synthesis Theory – Dreaming is triggered by random
brain activity then the brain tries to make sense of it
Circadian Rhythm

1-day wake/sleep
cycle
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Controlled by SCN
(Suprachiasmatic
Nucleus) in brain
Affected by
seasons (amount of
light and dark)
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Circadian rhythms are important in
determining the sleeping and
feeding patterns of all animals.
There are clear patterns of brain
wave activity, hormone production,
cell regeneration and other
biological activities linked to this
daily cycle.
The term "circadian", coined by
Franz Halberg, comes from the Latin
circa, "around", and dies, "day",
meaning literally "about a day.“
The formal study of biological
temporal rhythms such as daily,
weekly, seasonal, and annual
rhythms, is called chronobiology.
Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia - Can’t get to sleep
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¼ of the population have it
Some people do not really know how much they sleep
(they often sleep much more than they believe)
Sleep Apnea – Heavy snoring – Stop breathing
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SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) may be related
CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) devices
can help
Surgery
Sleep Disturbances (Continued)

SAD – Seasonal Affective Disorder – Depression
related to the lack of sunshine
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Short winter days
Exposure to full spectrum light can help
Jet Lag
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Disparity between personal internal clock and actual
local time
Shift Changes
People are usually able adjust to different wake/sleep
cycles over time.
Continual changes create continual problems.
Daydreams
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Dreaming (fantasying) without sleeping
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Accounts for about 10% of wake time
Reduces awareness of surroundings by varying
degrees
Ways To Sleep Better
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Exercise
Establish a fixed sleep pattern
Use bed for sleep only
Avoid caffeine after noon
Drink warm milk at bedtime (contains
tryptophan)
Avoid sleeping pills
Visit a sleep disorder clinic
To establish a sleep pattern:
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Go to bed at an established time
If you can’t fall asleep get up do something
until you are tired
Get up an established time
Do not take naps during the day
Hypnosis
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Trancelike stage of increased
susceptibility to suggestion
Subject must be willing
Will not do anything against your will
5-20% can not (or are not willing) to be
hypnotized
Some Use of Hypnosis
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Psychological Treatment
Pain Management
Law Enforcement
Athletic Improvement (concentration)
Smoking/Drugs - addiction/compulsive
behavior management
Enertainment
Meditation

A learned technique of focusing so sharply
on something that you become unaware of
outside stimulation.
Psychoactive Drugs
Altered State of Consciousness
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Influences a persons
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Emotions
Perceptions
Behavior
Addictive Drugs
Biological or Psychological Dependency
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Examples:
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Cocaine
Alcohol
Caffeine
Nicotine
Heroine
Why do People Take Drugs?
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Pain relief or other medical reason
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Prescription
Self medicated
Emulating Role Model
Peer Pressure
Curiosity
Thrill Seeking
Escape
Pleasure
Religious Practice
Stimulants
Street Name
Effects
Withdrawal Symptoms
Adverse/Overdose Reactions
Cocaine
Coke
Snow
Blow
Lady
Snow
Speed
Speed
Increased confidence, mood
elevation, sense of energy and
alertness, decreased appetite,
anxiety irritability, insomnia,
transient drowsiness, delayed
orgasm
Apathy. general fatigue. prolonged
sleep, depression, disorientation,
suicidal thoughts, agitated motor
activity, irritability bizarre dreams
Elevated blood pressure, increase
in body temperature, face picking,
suspiciousness, bizarre and
repetitious behavior vivid
hallucinations, convulsions,
possible death
Alcohol
Barbiturates
Nembutal
Seconal
Phenobarbital
Booze
Anxiety reduction, impulsiveness.
dramatic mood swings, bizarre
thoughts, suicidal behavior slurred
speech, disorientation, slowed
mental and physical functioning.
limited attention span
Weakness, restlessness, nausea
and vomiting, headaches,
nightmares, irritability, depression,
acute anxiety hallucinations,
seizures, possible death
Confusion, decreased response to
pain. shallow respiration. dilated
pupils, weak and rapid pulse,
coma, possible death
Rohypnol
Roofies
Rope
“Date-rape drug”
Muscle relaxation, amnesia, sleep
Seizures
Seizures, coma, incapacitation,
inability to resist sexual assault
H, hombre, junk,
smack, dope, crap,
horse, Drugstore
dope, cube, first
line, mud
Anxiety and pain reduction,
apathy, difficulty in concentration,
slowed speech. decreased
physical activity drooling, itching,
euphoria, nausea
Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing,
diarrhea, lower back pain, watery
eyes. runny nose, yawning,
irritability, tremors, panic, chills
and sweating. cramps
Depressed levels of
consciousness, low blood
pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow
breathing, convulsions, coma,
possible death
Bhang. kif, ganja,
dope, grass, pot,
hemp, joint, weed,
bone, Mary Jane
reefer
Euphoria, relaxed inhibitions,
increased appetite, disoriented
behavior
Hyperactivity, insomnia,
decreased, appetite. anxiety
Severe reactions rare but include
panic, paranoia, fatigue, bizarre
and dangerous behavior,
decreased testosterone over long
term; immune-system effects
Ecstasy
Heightened sense of oneself and
insight, feelings of peace,
empathy, energy
Depression, anxiety sleeplessness
Increase in body temperature,
memory difficulties
Acid, quasey,
microdot, white
lightning
Heightened aesthetic responses;
vision and depth distortion;
heightened sensitivity to faces and
gestures: magnified feelings;
Not reported
Nausea and chills; increased
pulse, temperature, and blood
pressure; slow, deep breathing;
loss of appetite; insomnia; bizarre,
Amphetamines
Benzedrine
Dexedrine
Depressants
Yellow jackets
Yellows
Reds
Narcotics
Heroin
Morphine
Hallucinogens
Cannabis (THC)
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
Marijuana
Hashish
Hash oil
MDMA
3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine
LSD
lysergic acid diethylamide
Classical Conditioning
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Learned Response - learned by paring a
neutral stimuli with a natural stimuli
Discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying
digestion
Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1946)
Classical Condition - Pavlov’s Experiment
Before Conditioning
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Neutral Stimulus:
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Neutral Stimulus:
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Dog Salivates
Dog Shown Meat (UCS
Unconditioned Stimulus)
Dog Salaivates (UCR
Unconditioned Response)
After Conditioning
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Conditioned Stimulus:
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Shown Meat
Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus
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Bell Rings
Unconditioned Stimulus
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Bell Rings (neutral stimulus)
Gets Dog’s Attention
(unrelated to meat)
During Conditioning
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Before Conditioning
(Unconditional Stimulus removed)
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Bell Rings
(no meat shown)
Conditioned Response
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Dog Salivates
Extinction
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Extinction of Conditioned Response
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Un-learning a conditioned response
The strength of a conditioned response
diminishes if not reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
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Immediate reemergence of CR
Single paring of CS with CR
Stimulus Generalization
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Responding similar stimuli as though it were
the Conditioned Stimuli
Stimulus Discrimination
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Ability to differentiate between stimuli
Operant Conditioning
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Learned Response - learned by
associating rewards or punishments with
a activity
Thorndike's Law of Effect
(Connectionism)
Edward Lee Thorndike
8/31/ 1874 – 8/9/1949)
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Responses that lead to satisfying
consequences are more likely to be repeated.
Reinforcers
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Reinforcer – Stimulus that increases the
likelihood of a particular behavior
Primary Reinforcer – Satisfies biological need
(food, etc.)
Secondary Reinforcer – Associated with primary
reinforcer (money, etc.)
Negative Reinforcer – Removal of a positive
reinforcer, primary or secondary, (time-out,
grounding, etc.)
Punishment
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Stimulus the decrease the likelihood of a
behavior – (spanking, jail, fines, etc.)
Produces:
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To be effective:
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Avoidance activity
Resentment
Must be immediate
Must be severe enough to discourage behavior
Least effective method of learning
Reinforcement Schedules
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Fixed-ratio – Rewards given at a fixed rate per
performance
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Variable-ratio – Rewards given at an unknown rate
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Slot machine
Very effective
Fixed-interval – Rewards given at fixed time
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Hourly employee’s paycheck
Requires strict adherence to reward schedule
Salaried employee’s paycheck
Least effective
Variable-interval – Reward given at a unknown time
intervals
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Pop quizzes
More effective
Shaping Behavior
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Teaching a complex behavior by rewarding
closer and closer approximation of the desired
behavior. (Successive approximations)
Behavior Modification
Formal procedure to increase or decrease
a behavior:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Identify target behavior
Design data recording system
Establish baseline
Start program (Reinforcing Behavior)
Record Data
Evaluate Data
Informal behavior modification is normal
part of how we normally interact with others.
Latent Learning
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Learning without apparent incentives
Not demonstrated until needed
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A passenger in a car may learning how find a
particular store
Observational Learning
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Learning by observing a model
Imitation
Much of childhood learning
Learning Styles
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Relational – learning parts are related to the
whole (women)
Analytical – analysis of the principals involved
(men)
Memory
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Process of encoding, storing, and
retrieval of information:
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Encoding – Receiving, processing, and storing
information received from the senses
Storage – Maintenance of information saved in
memory
Retrieval – Locating information and bringing it to
awareness
Types of Memory
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Sensory Learning – < 1 second – Raw Information
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Sight (Iconic)
Hearing (Echoic)
Touch
Taste
Smell
Motion
Short Term Memory – 15-25 seconds
Long Term Memory – Permanent
Short-term Memory
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Holds encoded (processed/meaningful)
information.
Can hold a maximum of seven (+/- 2) chunks
of information.
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7 numbers
7 letters
7 words
(etc.)
Limited to 15-25 seconds
Rehearsal
Transferring Short-term to Long-term Memory
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Just repeating the information over and over
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Keeps the information active in short-term
memory
Often lost when the repeating stops
Elaborative Rehearsal
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Using logic, mnemonics, or organizing the
information leads to long-term memory storage
Traditional Memory Model (Sequential)
Short-term
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Sensory
Memory
Encoding
Retrieval
Simple Rehearsal
Elaborative
Rehearsal
Conscious
Awareness
Working Memory Model
Sensory
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Working
Memory
Central
Executive
Encoding
Visual
Store
Verbal
Store
Retrieval
Episodic
Buffer
Long-term Memory Model
Long-term Memory
Declarative Memory
Semantic Episodic
Memory Memory
(Facts)
(Personal
knowledge)
Procedural Memory
(Skills & Habits)
Associative Memory Model
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Interconnected mental representations of
information
Priming – Word or concept triggers recall of
related information
Recalling
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Difficult because of the vast amount of
information stored in our brains
Retrieval Cues - Words or images that
guide us through long term memory
Recall - retrieving information (fill in the
blank)
Recognition - select from items presented
(multiple choice)
Levels of Processing
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The more material is analyzed, considered, or
processed in any way – the better it will be
remembered.
Which generates better, long-lasting memory?
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Rote memorization of a list of key terms
Discussing the key terms in a study group
Flashbulb Memories
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Vivid memories focused on a significant
event in your life.
Constructive Processes in Memory
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Recollection is imperfect
Our minds fill in the missing information
Our personal biases and expectations affect
how we fill in the missing information.
Schemas:
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Organized bodies of information stored in memory
that bias the way new information is:
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Interpreted
Stored
Recalled
Memories in the Courtroom
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Eyewitnesses are prone to very high error
because of fear, influences from personal
schema, expectations (how questions are
worded), etc.
Children’s recollections are especially
susceptible to the influence or perceived
expectations.
Repressed Memories:
Truth or Fiction?
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“Repressed Memories” are often (always?)
“False Memories” (fabricated).
Psychologists have been accused (and
convicted) of inadvertently prompting and
encouraging the creation of “Repressed
Memories.”
Repressed Memories - supported by Freud no scientific support
Autobiographical Memory
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Recalling our own past is subject to the same
constructive processes and biases as other
types of recall.
We tend to recall our past in ways that are
consistent with our current beliefs and
desires.
Major events are remembered best –
unpleasant events are remembered least.
Accuracy of recall decreases with time.
Forgetting
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The inability to recall may be attributed to
may factors:
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Initial encoding
Memory decay
Interference
Cue-dependent loss
Drugs
Disease
Physical damage
Memory Persistence
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Memory decreases over time: Very rapid at first; Very slow later on
Hermann Ebinghaus
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Reviewing information right after learning greatly increases
persistence.
Relearning previously learned information is easier, quicker and
more persistent.
Memory Decay
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The loss of the physical memory trace.
Though to be due to lack of use.
Does not appear to be time dependent.
(May just be a recall problem.)
Memory Interference
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The theory that new memory interferes with
the recall of older memory.
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Proactive Interference – Earlier learning interferes
with new learning
Retroactive Interference – New learning interferes
with older learning
Biological Foundation of Memory
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Memory Trace: The physical (neurological) record
(map) of a memory.
Consolidation:
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Memory occurs with the increase of stable synapses
between many neurons.
Controlled by the hippocampus
Long-term Potentiation (LTP): The enhancement in
efficiency of the synapse between neurons.
Multiple processing systems in the brain are
involved in learning and consolidation and LTP
occurs over long periods of time throughout the
brain.
Memory Dysfunctions
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Alzheimer's Disease
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Amnesia
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1 in 5 in 75-84 age group
50% of those 85 and over
(May be related to low production of beta amyloid)
Retrograde amnesia – Unable to remember past (rare)
Anterograde amnesia – Unable to remember current
things
Korsakoff’s Disease

Afflicts long-term alcoholics
Normal vs. Alzheimer’s Disease

Normal forgetfulness:
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Forgetting parts of an experience
Forgetting where the car is parked
Forgetting events from the distant past
Forgetting a person's name, remembering it later
Memory loss due to Alzheimer's disease:
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Forgetting an entire experience
Forgetting how to drive a car
Forgetting recent events
Forgetting ever having known a particular person
Causes changes in both thinking (cognition) and behavior or
personality.