Download Fall of Caesar

Historical
Fall of Caesar
Introduction
Salvēte, delegates! We are entering debate during an extremely tumultuous time in the history of our Republic.
Gaius Julius Caesar has been declared Dictator of Rome
by the Roman Senate. Although he has implemented a
number of effective and far-reaching reforms, many feel
uneasy about the direction in which the Roman Republic
is headed. This is a crisis-oriented committee. It is our
duty to come together and, in accordance with each participant’s own political, moral, and militaristic views, decide the action that must be taken. You shall shape history. You shall decide how the world will carry on. You are
the future of Rome...
arrived from Miletus, he immediately set out from that
same harbor, found his prior captors, captured them, and
threw them into prison.13
When King Mithridates of Pontus initiated his Third Mithridatic War, Caesar set out for Asia, raised an army of
regional troops and defeated Mithridates’ forces. Both his
actions, the crucifiction of his captors and the protecting
of Asia during the war, were technically illegal, as Caesar was a private citizen without any legitimate imperium
granted by the Senate. Notably, however, no charges were
made against him, signifying his clear influence and power over Roman government.8
In 67 BCE, after proving both his military and rhetorical
prowess, Caesar married Pompeia. Pompeia was related, albeit distantly, to Gnaeius Pompeius, who is better
known to history as Pompey the Great, an important and
powerful figure who had been elected consul with Marcus
Licinius Crassus a few years prior in 70 BCE. This union
was perhaps one of the first indicators that signalled a
potential alliance between Caesar and Pompey. While
Pompey was both a pretty poor speaker and politician
and Crassus was scorned by many Romans for helping
to banish Sulla all those years ago, Caesar was immensely popular with the Roman people.7 Caesar worked with
Crassus and Pompey because he needed the immense
wealth of the former and the influence of the latter. Crassus and Pompey needed Caesar equally as much for his
ability to handle the Plebeians.8 However, it was not until
60 BCE that these three influential men formed the First
Triumvirate. A political coalition cemented by marriages, the Triumvirate was established primarily to handle
specific administrative tasks that would have normally be
handled by the Roman Magistrates.5
Caesar’s Rise to Power
Caesar sauntered into Roman politics in 77 BCE, when
he prosecuted Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, a corrupt
former Consul and lieutenant of Lucius Cornelius Sulla
- a Roman general who had revived the dictatorship and
seized power four years earlier. The case ultimately signaled Caesar’s position in the Popularis camp — a Roman
faction that passed their laws through assemblies of the
people and focused on extension of voting rights, relieving poverty, and advocating popular support for agrarian
laws — and bolstered Caesar’s political position. The Populares counterparts, the Optimates, advocated adherence
to old conservative and oligarchic practices and viewed
the Populares as promoters of tyranny.7 Later, seeking
to polish his rhetoric, Caesar embarked on a journey to
Rhodes in 75 BCE to learn from the renowned Apollonius Molo. On the way, he was captured by pirates. The
pirates held him captive for 38 days, setting his ransom
to twenty talents. Enraged at such a modest price for his
greatness, Caesar famously demanded that this ransom
be raised to fifty.13 While in captivity, Caesar wrote poetry
and speeches that he would read out loud to the pirates,
all the while letting the pirates know that he would return
at some point and have them hanged. Once the ransom
In 65 BCE, Caesar was elected Curule Aedile, a political
office tasked with the maintenance of public buildings
and enforcement of public order. An Optimate, Marcus
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Caesar’s Gallic Conquests
“Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres . . .”
Calpurnius Bibulus, greatly aided him as his colleague.5
Throughout the year, he showed support for two major
laws, the Lex Gabinia and the Lex Manilia. The Lex Gabinia granted Pompey extraordinary power to deal with
the pirates who were ravaging the Mediterranean. In a
spectacular display of military prowess, Pompey concluded his campaign against the pirates in just 40 days, solving
in a matter of weeks a problem that had plagued Rome
for decades. The lex Manilia gave Pompey the military
commission to wage war against Rome’s constant enemy,
Mithridates of Pontus.
Caesar began the De bello Gallico, his personal account
of his conquest of Gaul, with these memorable words.
Caesar spent seven years in Gaul and Britain. Through
yearly dispatches to the Roman Senate (later compiled
together in the De bello Gallico), public infrastructural
projects (like constructing public buildings) in Rome,
and frequent donations to Italian communities, Caesar
became very well known among the Roman public.
While Caesar’s tenure as Curule Aedile did see Pompey’s
emergence as a military force to be reckoned with, it was
also characterized by extravagant spending for public entertainment, often paid for by loans. By now, Caesar was
a hotly debated politician in Rome. During their times
in office, Pompey and Crassus had successfully reinstated
most of the rights of the People’s Assembly. Caesar, for his
part, once again established in the Forum the statues of
Marius, a former Roman general, that Sulla had ordered
to be taken down during his reign. Consequently, the Optimates were infuriated: they decried any and all praise of
generals (i.e. Marius) who used their military influence
to gain power over the Senate. Even so, they refused to
act in any way that would threaten their approval with
the public.
At the start of 58 BCE, however, Caesar had no way of
knowing that he would soon be fighting a war in Gaul.
Before war broke out, there had been some instability
in Gaul between 61 and 60 BCE, but Caesar had helped
alleviate the dangers of the situation by forming an alliance with the German king Ariovistus who had taken
over the Gallic frontier. Caesar believed that the Dacian
tribe’s expansion of power towards the north-eastern
border of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria, a Roman province,
was the true threat. In fact, his fear of this threat is what
prompted him to establish three of his four legions in that
region at the start of his Proconsulship. Caesar was thus
extremely concerned when he learned that the Helvetii
(one of the various Gallic tribes) had been forming plans
to attack Rome’s Transalpine province. Even so, in light of
this new information, Caesar reacted smoothly and effectively, acquiring two legions and moving his army north
to meet and fight the threatening tribe. The speed and decisiveness of these actions were significant in showcasing
Caesar’s strong leadership qualities. Although the Helvetii fought back and attacked the substantially smaller
Roman army, they were, in time, thoroughly defeated.1
On account of his prodigality in the previous year, Caesar’s office was plagued with instability between 63 and
62 BCE. With his debts having skyrocketed, Caesar was
losing his creditors’ much needed patience. Still, Caesar
was elected Praetor in 62 BCE, which mollified his creditors for the time being, as a Praetorship was most often
followed by a lucrative governorship.
With this victory against the Gauls and then later the
Germans, Caesar established his role as Marius’ heir,
which served as a reminder of Marius’ victories over the
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Germanic Cimbri and Teutones tribes. By this time, Caesar wished to attain two additional legions in the hopes
of conquering Gaul. In the next year, Caesar overcame
the problems posed by the Belgic tribes located up north.
During this situation, his lieutenant, Publius Crassus (the
son of Marcus Licinius Crassus), quelled similar situations in what is now Normandy and Brittany. After two
years of campaigning, Gaul (extending from the Rhine
River all the way to the Ocean) had finally relinquished
power to Rome through the clear efforts of Caesar and his
army. Caesar’s dispatches to Rome were happily greeted
with much admiration and the Senate voted him a 15-day
Thanksgiving (Pompey had previously only gotten 10).
gate for Caesar in his absence (thus supporting the Populares faction), while Titus Annius Milo, his rival, rallied
behind Pompey in the Optimates faction.4 Lacking any
need for flexibility, Clodius then counted on his former
contributors. Pompey reacted by securing Cicero’s return.
Cicero’s first decisive action following his return was to
solicit the grain distribution rights (or cura annonae) for
Pompey for 5 years. This action corresponded with the
appearance of Caesar’s dispatches. For now, it appeared
as though the members of the triumvirate were secure in
their power.
Such a sense of control, of course, was an illusion. Crassus
and Pompey had soon receded into their former enmity,
arguing fiercely and falling out over the Egyptian succession question. As the grain shortage progressed, Pompey
became more and more unpopular among the Roman
populace. The debates between Crassus and Pompey
came to a head when Clodius incited his supporters to
heckle Pompey and praise Crassus at the trial of Titius
Annius Milo. Cicero, too, joined Clodius, Cato, and Biblius in harshly critiquing Caesar’s works and legislation.
Caesar’s command was actually threatened by one of the
consular candidates during this time.
During April 56 BCE, Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus met
at Lucca (just inside the borders of Cisalpine Gaul), where
Caesar succeeded in solidifying up their shaky partnership. At Lucca, Caesar arranged that Pompey and Crassus
would be consuls in 55 BCE, and Caesar was assured of
his command in Gaul for five more years.
Crisis of the Triumvirate - Lucca
Publius Clodius, a Roman politician, had previously become a member of the plebeian party in 59 BCE in the
hopes that he could run for the plebeian tribune against
Cicero in following year. Elected tribune, he soon passed
laws that exiled anyone who executed a Roman citizen
without a fair trial.15 Thus, during Caesar’s tenure as consul, for bringing about the deaths of some conspirators
earlier during the Second Catilinarian Conspiracy, Cicero was forced into exile.3 Publius Clodius then established
himself as the people’s hero while Caesar was occupied
with the Gallic Wars. In essence, Clodius acted as a surro-
Crossing the Rubicon
“Alea iacta est . . .”
Caesar’s exploits in Gaul were well received back in Rome
and his popularity among the Roman people soared.
His outstanding military and tactical prowess raised the
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spirits of the people and to them Caesar seemed emblematic of a true leader. Caesar’s increasing popularity
did not sit well with the Roman Senate. Caesar seemed
now more than ever a threat to the very institutions of
the Roman Republic — a threat to the Senate and especially to Pompey, who still wielded considerable power in
Rome. Accordingly, the Senate ordered Caesar to resign
command and disband his army or risk being declared an
“Enemy of the State.” Caesar would not be welcomed back
warmly should he choose to ignore this edict (which was
to be enforced by Pompey). Moreover, an ancient Roman
law forbade any military commander from crossing over
into Roman territory and entering Italia with a standing
army. 2
In January of 49 BCE, Caesar, who was currently residing
in Ravenna, just south of the Rubicon River, had a decision to make: acquiesce to the Senate’s wishes and face
the end of his political career (and possibly his own life)
or march on Rome with his army and plunge Rome into
a civil war. In the end, Caesar chose to disobey both the
Senate and old Roman law, and crossed into Italy proper
with the words, “The die is cast.”
sulship when he returned from his occupations in Gaul.
Until this appointment however, he wished to maintain
control over his army the control of his army. The senate
disproved Caesar’s wishes and thought that it would serve
Rome best if he was seen as a private citizen before the
election took place. However, Caesar was aware that if he
was seen as an ordinary citizen by the people, he would
be seen as weak by the enemies that wished to destroy
him.12 Caesar said that he would nevertheless comply and
give up his army (and province), if Pompey would follow;
but Pompey declined such a proposition. The senate then
asked Caesar to give up control of two of his legions for
the Parthian war, another war Rome was fighting against
the Parthians. Caesar agreed to give up a number of his
valuable legions of his army (8 legions) as long as he was
permitted to keep two legions in Cisalpine Gaul until the
time of his election. Not surprisingly, the Senate repudiated his offer and declared that Caesar must relinquish
his province and his entire army, or be declared a public
enemy. The senate had made Caesar choose between dishonor and war. Caesar ultimately “chose war, and crossed
the Rubicon (B.C. 49), the stream which separated hi
province of Cisalpine Gaul from Italy.”15
Backtracking - Prelude to the Civil War/ Civil War
Pompey, Crassus and Caesar had significant roles in the
first Triumvirate. However, after the death of Crassus in
53 BC, the Triumvirate began to fall apart. Because anarchy slowly seemed to take hold of Rome and Caesar was
overseas, Pompey was appointed as the “Sole Consul” (for
the state of emergency) and restored order in the state. For
his efforts in restoring stability, he was thought to be “the
savior of society.”12 From here on, Pompey became more
attached to the values of the Senate. In return, the Senate
extended his rule in Spain for an additional five years.15
Consequently, when it came to the war, the Patricians
supported Pompey’s forces. All the way in Gaul, Caesar
was under the impression that he would receive the con-
Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon catapulted Rome into a
brutal civil war between two opposing forces: Caesar and
the Populares, and Pompey and the Optimates. The civilians greatly approved of Caesar’s action and perceived
him as a hero. However, the senate was very fearful and
expected the worse from Caesar’s crossing of the Rubicon.
Though the Populares and the Optimates were significant
forces in the civil war, this war was mainly between two of
the best soldiers in Rome: Caesar and Pompey. Pompey’s
forces were greater and outnumbered those of Caesar’s
and Caesar was surrounded by Pompey and his forces in
Spain and Greece. However, Caesar won the decisive Battle of Pharsalus and later destroyed Hispania’s army at the
Battle of Ilerda (49 BC).12
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disturb elections and terrorize the populace for a desired
outcome. Actions such as these often led to a rise in violence, unrest, and social distress. Caesar began a program
of radical reforms to try to manage and deal with these
problems. One of these reforms was the Grand Program
of Colonization. This was created to improve the social
conditions in Rome as citizenship spread throughout the
empire. He forbade Collegias that were suspected of having corrupt political aims.
Though Caesar did ultimately “win” the war, he nonetheless faced various obstacles throughout the war. In his
struggle and efforts to obtain maximum power, Caesar’s
problems most often revolved around whether he should
put himself at his enemies’ mercy or gain the monopoly of power (of which he was often accused). Attempts
at negotiations were made and Caesar’s problems at the
time heightened with his jealous opponent, Pompey, and
the Optimates. Caesar wished to weaken the position of
his enemies in two ways.6 First, he wished to “neutralize”
Pompey because Pompey had total control over the senatorial forces and was therefore capable of causing serious
damage to Caesar’s efforts to rise to power. His second
method was his policy of “clementia” in which, through
clemency, Caesar wished to receive the recognition of the
senatorial class and possibly establish cooperation with
them (which he thought would be much needed after the
war). The Optimates obtained a senatorial resolution and
forced Caesar to lay down his command at its determined
terminal date. However, if Caesar backed down, Pompey
would be declared Dictator and Caesar would be made
the public enemy. Although it is likely that Caesar didn’t
wish for a Civil War, he had a well-prepared and loyal
army behind him.
Another one of Caesar’s important creations was the
Census of Civic Lists in which the recipients of corn were
reduced from 320,000 to 150,000. This wasn’t so much
for saving money as it was for preventing the people of
Italia from coming to the city. The goal of this action was
to make the life in the provinces of Italia more attractive
to the citizens.8 To further carry this out, ⅓ of the workers
of the free state were freed, along with slaves, to decrease
unemployment in the region.
Newly founded Roman Colonies from the rebuilt cities
of Carthage and Corinth provided new life for many Roman families and Civil War veterans. However, Caesar
enacted Romanization to the settlers of the region (Gaul,
Spain, Africa…) where he lavishly granted citizenship to
an array of people. He also created new laws determining the method by which these new towns would be governed. The law Lex Julia Municipalis was imperative in
this process because it would become the foundation for
not only municipal, but also provincial, administrations
that would last until the fall of the Roman Empire.8 Along
with this law, he also carried out the codification of all
Civil laws of the time.
Caesar The Reformer
During the time of Caesar’s rule, the citizens of Rome had
evolved into a proletariat which relied heavily on electoral bribery, feasts, triumphs. Therefore, Caesar was a Populist and often used the people of Rome as a means to
power; however, he did not trust them. He was wary of
them because of their fickle nature. Fitting into the electoral nature of the time, during the Gallic Wars, Caesar
sent his troops home to vote for him.
One of Caesar’s greatest concerns was the reformation
of the city-state of Rome into an empire. Along with his
contemporaries, Caesar recognized that Rome would not
reach its full potential as a city state and that the state
The corruption of the time was great, with people such
as Clodius and Milo who organized Collegia (clubs) to
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could in fact no longer survive. He wished that the people
would not only be bound to the city of Rome, but the Roman Empire. Working towards this aim, Caesar increased
the number of people in the senate from 600 to 900 including people from new provinces. Many of the additional senators were supporters of Caesar and therefore
automatically his clients who owed Caesar for their political and financial success and therefore owed him their
loyalty.6 The new Senators ensured Caesar a majority
vote for whatever political proposals he might have. With
guaranteed political support in the Senate, Caesar would
be able to control the creation and rule of the expanding
Roman empire.
300 years of monetary stability in the empire.1
This expansion of the Senate, including the rebuilding of
the Curia, could also be interpreted as an act to break the
monopolies that had existed within the Senate.1 However,
some saw this project as a way for Caesar to maximize
his own power and not truly put an end to corruption.
The benefit would logically produce a better and much
more representative form of government. It was around
this time period that Caesar was selected to rule as Dictator by the senate. A dictator in the eyes of the Roman
Republican government was: “a temporary magistrate
with extraordinary powers, nominated by a consul on
the recommendation of the Senate and confirmed by the
Comitia Curiata (a popular assembly). In Rome, dictatorship was a last resort, to be used only in times of military,
and later internal, crises. The dictator’s term was set at six
months, although he customarily laid down his powers as
soon as the crisis passed”.2
In addition to his numerous political ambitions, Caesar
also wished to implement various reforms to solve Rome’s
debt problem. This debt had always been present in the
city-state because of the increasing interest rates during
war time. Caesar took steps to lower the interest rate
and actually arranged for 1/4 of all debts to be cancelled.
He also wished to get money flowing again and increase
the circulation of money which would increase liquidity (allowing the quick sale of an asset without having to
reduce its price very much or even at all). Additionally,
before Caesar’s reign, the Senate had been dominated
by the Roman aristocratic families seeking special business concessions or monopolies in trade. This added to
the corruption of the “once great Roman Republic”. The
economic standards and conditions had greatly declined
and the economy was headed for a serious downfall. Real
estate values had plummeted and lenders refused to accept property in return. It is also very important to note
that a large number of the money lenders were these corrupt Senators. Caesar tried to decrease the corruption
of the Senate by expanding it and hoping to dilute the
power it had. Because Caesar took these precautions to
address the economic and social situation of the time, the
groundwork was established for an economic boom and
Another aspect of Caesar’s reforms were public works
projects in which he carried out to improve the condition of Rome and Italia. Some of these reforms included
the rebuilding of the Senate building, new temples, commercial centers and state libraries in Hellenistic Style. To
further improve the “unimpressive” city of Rome to conform to the more ornate Greek standards, he extended
the Roman Forum. It is important to note that in order
to carry out such reforms and impart such changes, Caesar extended his term as dictator. Many patricians saw
this action as a threat to their own power; therefore, the
term extension(and eventually deletion) further aggrandized the patricians’ dislike for Caesar. Regardless, Caesar
wanted to ensure that Rome would become the center of
culture, certain privileges were granted to teachers and
educators of Philosophy and liberal arts.
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Caesar’s Character
Like Sulla, Caesar had won his power with the aid of
his army, yet he had no intention of building his empire
upon his army. Caesar has often been characterized by
many historians as one who was hated by the aristocracy
regardless of the amount of clemency he showed them.4
They felt as if their power was being threatened by the
dictator in rule. Many of Caesar’s followers supported
him solely in the hopes of gaining wealth from his victories (which was not very probable and didn’t occur often)
— thus, many supported Caesar for personal profit rather
than for improving Rome.
The senate had control over certain legions of Italia at the
time. Pompey’s plan was to seize control of Rome and Italy from Caesar and to shift his command to the sea and
the East to weaken the Caesarians. Pompey also had legions in Spain; these legions were imperative in threatening his rivals. In late April of 48, Caesar followed Pompey
and his men closely and managed to get the city of Dyrrachium from Pompey by cutting him off from the city.8
Caesar’s men in Greece were able to gain more support
from important cities. Caesar was now in Macedonia
and Pompey was now running out of resources. Many
thought Pompey had lost a fight he should have won. This
defeat for Pompey and victory for Caesar at the Battle of
Pharsalus August 9, 48 BCE effectively ended the Roman
Republic.10
Personal dignitas was one of the strongest desires of the
Roman people at the time. To achieve fame was the ultimate goal for many, and this ambition is finally what led
to the development of Rome from a city to an empire.
When Caesar crossed the Rubicon, he invoked “personal
infringements” as one of the reasons for going to war. In
his ambition and quest for glory and fame, Caesar was
not unlike other Romans at the time who were willing to
put their honor over the safety and security of the state.
Though he was ruthless when needed, he was generally a
generous and forgiving man. Several of his government
appointees were appointed because of their humanity and
incorruptibility. Caesar attempted to stay above many of
the prejudices of the time including class, race, or party.
This trait of his was not commonly found in many other
associates/opponents. Though many did not share this
view, Caesar did not think that his power was monarchical in role and knew that the time of his death would call
for the renewal of a Civil War.
Caesar in Egypt
From 47-44 BCE, Caesar wished to extend his influence
to further consolidate his power. For this reason, as well
as his developing relationship with Cleopatra, Caesar
travelled to Egypt. In Egypt at the time, Ptolemy and his
sister Cleopatra were in the midst of a civil war to determine the Egyptian Pharaonic succession. With Caesar’s
help, Cleopatra gained the position of co-ruler of Egypt.
As a result of his intimate companionship with Cleopatra,
he was often involved in matters of the Egyptian court.
For this reason, many Egyptians disliked Caesar and expressed this dismay through violent riots. Ptolemy, who
was threatening Cleopatra’s rule in Alexandria, was one
of the powerful figures who greatly disliked him. However, Caesar finally defeated Ptolemy’s forces and made
Cleopatra the only ruler of Egypt.8 Though Caesar’s life
was threatened during his time in Egypt, his occupations
overseas provided a break from the impending Civil War
in Rome.
After his affairs in Alexandria, Caesar returned
to a chaotic Rome. Mark Antony, Publius Dolabella and
Caesar’s other lieutenants had not been able to keep peace
Caesar’s numerous military, literary, and legislative
achievements prove his wealth of knowledge and wits. As
a conqueror, reformer, and politician, Caesar stands out
as one of the most influential men of all time.
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Questions
among the people. This lack of effective authority had
caused severe unrest and anarchy among the Roman people. Caesar attempted to take control once again and fortified city gates to prevent the demobilization of the city
by the tenth legion. The senate then appointed Caesar as
the dictator of Rome for a period of 10 years and disaster
soon followed.
Conclusion
That Caesar angered many people in both his rise to power and during his reign is a severe understatement. His
policies both belittled the Senate and angered patricians
who had previously exercised vast power over Roman
politics and thus, Roman life. It should be noted, however, that Caesar’s policies did significantly benefit the lower
class citizens of Rome. This discrepancy has given rise to
much conflict and debate throughout the course of Caesar’s rule. Ultimately, the populus’ next step is unknown.
Debate will take place in a secret underground catacomb
beneath the Roman Senate. The future is very uncertain;
Caesar is gaining more and more power, Senators are
growing restless concerning the future of the Republic,
and other leaders are either involved in conspiracy, salivating at the rewards of the aftermath if there were to be
more war, or very loyal to Caesar. Soldiers and generals
remain loyal to Caesar and his rule, but not blindly. Ultimately, the future path can take a number of different
twists and turns, and you as a committee must decide
how to progress. What will be done about Caesar’s reign,
if anything at all?
1. What risks are involved in taking drastic action against
Caesar?
2. Is drastic action even necessary?
3. What do you believe should be done about Caesar’s
rule?
4. What are the problems that you have with Caesar’s rule,
if any at all?
5. Do you believe Caesar’s actions are for the betterment
of Rome or for his own personal gains? Is he a tyrant or
a leader that truly had the best interest of the people in
mind?
6. Analyze Caesar’s motives closely.
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Delegates
Publius Servilius Vatia
Isauricus
Sallust
Servilius Casca
Trebonius
Publius CorneliusDolabella
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus
Marcus Caelius Rufus
Quintus Sertorius
Lucius Sergius Catilina
Titus Labienus
Publius Clodius Pulcher
Titus Annius Milo
Lucius Licinius Lucullus
Lucius Cornelius Sulla
Pompey
Crassus
Cassius Longinus
Marc Antony
Octavian
Lepidus
Sextus Aurelius
Sabinus Maximus
Cicero
Brutus
Marcus Porcius Cato
Uticensis - “Cato the
Younger”
Gaius Marius
Cleopatra
Marcus Minucius Thermus
Tillius Cimber
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Works Cited
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Complete Vocabulary, for the Use of Classes Reading for Departmental and University Examinations. Toronto: Copp, Clark, 1887.
Print.
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www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/162236/dictator>.
3. “Gaius Julius Caesar - 44BC.” Armstrong Economics. N.p., 28 Mar. 2012. Web. 23 Dec. 2014.
4. Jahnige, J. “Publius Clodius Pulcher.” Clodius. N.p., Oct. 2003. Web. 11 Jan. 2015.
5. Jahnige, J. “Titus Annius Milo.” Milo. N.p., Oct. 2003. Web. 11 Jan. 2015.
6. John E. Stambaugh, The Ancient Roman City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), p. 347- 348; O.F. Robinson, Ancient Rome:
City Planning and Administration, p. 105.
7. Jones, Jim. “ROMAN HISTORY TIMELINE.” ROMAN HISTORY TIMELINE. West Chester University of Pennsylvania, 2013.
Web. 09 Jan. 2015.
8. “Julius Caesar Crosses the Rubicon, 49 BC,” EyeWitness to History, www.eyewitnesstohistory.com (2002).
9. “Julius Caesar.” Julius Caesar. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Dec. 2014. <http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/caesar-index.html>.
10. Keppie, L. J. F. The Making of the Roman Army: From Republic to Empire. London: Routledge, 1998. Print.
11. Kidd, Elizabeth. “Ancient History.” HSC Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Jan. 2015.
<http://hsc.csu.edu.au/ancient_history/histor-
ical_periods/rome/2536/Rome78_28BC.html#foot13>.
12. Lendering, Jona. “Gaius Julius Caesar.” C. Julius Caesar. Livius.org, n.d. 1995. Web. 19 Jan. 2015. <http://www.livius.org/caacan/caesar/caesar06.html#coup>.
13. Lendering, Jona. “Julius Caesar and the pirates.” C. Julius Caesar. Livius.org, n.d. 1995. Web. 1 Feb. 2015. <http://www.livius.org/
caa-can/caesar/caesar_t01.htm>.
14. Long, George. “P18 Aediles.” LacusCurtius • Roman Law. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Jan. 2015.
15. Morey, William C. “Outlines of Roman History, Chapter 21.” Outlines of Roman History, Chapter 21. American Book Company,
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Committee Name
Topic
1901. Web. 01 Feb. 2015.
16. Osgood, Josiah. Caesar’s Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2006.
Print.
17. Wake, Heather. “Optimates and Populares.” Etrusia. Etrusia, 21 Oct. 2004. Web. 11 Jan. 2015.
18. Watkins, Thayer. “A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar.” A Timeline of the Life of Julius Caesar. San José State University, n.d.
Web. 23 Dec. 2014. <http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/caesarjulius.htm>.
19. Wheeler, Kevin. “The Life of Gaius Julius Caesar.” Life of Gaius Julius Caesar. Geocities, n.d. Web. 23 Dec. 2014.
Images
Figure 1: .Kamm, Antony. “The Romans.” The Classics Pages: Antony Kamm’s ‘’: 3.1 Julius Caesar
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