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Cardiovascular
System: The Heart
The Heart
Circulation and Heart Valves
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Physiology of the Heart
Exercise and the Heart
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart > The Heart
The Heart
• Anatomy of the Heart
• Pericardium
• Layers of the Heart Walls
• Chambers of the Heart
• Great Vessels of the Heart
• Myocardial Thickness and Function
• Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart > Circulation and Heart Valves
Circulation and Heart Valves
• Heart Circulation
• Operation of Atrioventricular Valves
• Operation of Semilunar Valves
• Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart > Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
• Microscopic Anatomy
• Mechanism and Contraction Events of Cardiac Muscle Fibers
• Energy Requirements
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart > Physiology of the Heart
Physiology of the Heart
• Electrical Events
• Electrocardiogram and Correlation of ECG Waves with Systole
• Heart Sounds
• Cardiac Cycle
• Cardiac Output
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart > Exercise and the Heart
Exercise and the Heart
• Effects of Exercise on the Heart
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Appendix
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Key terms
• aerobic exercise A process whereby one trains the heart and lungs to pump blood more efficiently, increasing delivery of
oxygen to muscles and organs.
• alveoli Air sacs in the lungs that provide the surface for gas exchange between the air and capillaries.
• angina Chest pain that indicates ischemia in the heart. It may be either transient (unstable) or stable, and stable anginas
typically lead to infarction.
• aorta The great artery which carries the blood from the heart into systemic circulation.
• atrioventricular (AV) node The bundle of conducting tissue that receives impulses from the SA node and delays them before
stimulating depolarization in the muscles of the ventricles.
• Atrioventricular valves These valves separate the atria from the ventricles on each side of the heart and prevent backflow from
the ventricles into the atria during systole. They include the mitral and tricuspid valves.
• calcium-induced calcium release (CICR) A process whereby calcium can trigger release of further calcium from the muscle
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
• cardiac cycle The term used to describe the relaxation and contraction that occur as a heart works to pump blood through the
body.
• Cardiac hypertrophy An adaptive disease in which the walls of the heart become too thick to pump blood effectively. It is
generally a complication of hypertension.
• cardiac output The volume of blood pumped by the heart, in particular by the left or right ventricle, in the time interval of one
minute.
• cardiac output The volume of blood pumped by the heart each minute, calculated as heart rate (HR) X (times) stroke volume
(SV).
• cardiomyocyte A cardiac muscle cell (or myocyte) in the heart, which makes up the cardiac muscle tissue.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• cardiomyocyte A cardiac muscle cell (myocyte) in the heart.
• collagen A glycoprotein that forms elongated fibers, usually found in the extracellular matrix of connective tissue.
• diastole The relaxation and dilation of the heart chambers between contractions, during which they fill with blood.
• dub The second heart tone, or S2 (A2 and P2), caused by the closure of the aortic valve and pulmonary valve at the end of
ventricular systole.
• endocardium A thin serous membrane that lines the interior of the heart and valves.
• excitation contraction coupling (ECC) The physiological process of converting an electrical stimulus to a mechanical response.
• fibrillation A condition in which parts of the ECG do not appear normally, representing irregular, rapid, disorganized, and
inefficient contractions of the atria or ventricles.
• fibrous pericardium Composed of dense connective tissue which protects the heart, anchors it to the surrounding walls, and
prevents the heart from overfilling with blood.
• fibrous rings Four dense bands of tough elastic tissue that encircle the bases of the valves of the heart.
• heart A fist-sized muscular organ in the chest that pumps blood through the body using involuntary contractions of cardiac
muscle.
• Heart murmurs A sound made by backflow of blood through either set of valve that cannot close or open properly.
• intercalated discs Junctions that connect cardiomyocytes together, some of which transmit electrical impulses between cells.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• ischemia Oxygen deprivation in tissues due to mechanical obstruction of the blood supply, such as by a narrowed or blocked
artery or clot.
• lactate A molecule produced by anaerobic respiration that can be used to produce ATP without oxygen, albeit at lower levels.
• lub The first heart tone, or S1, caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid) at the beginning of
ventricular contraction or systole.
• mean arterial blood pressure A measure of blood pressure based on cardiac output and vascular resistance.
• metabolic syndrome, A complex disease, characterized by lack of exercise and high levels of adipose tissue, that turn causes
many other cardiovascular and endocrine diseases.
• mitral valve The bicuspid valve that divides the left atrium and left ventricle of the heart
• myocardial infarction Necrosis of heart muscle caused by an interruption to the supply of blood to the heart, often as a result of
prolonged ischemia.
• myocardium The middle of the three layers forming the wall of the heart, containing cardiac muscle tissue. Innervated by the
Purkinje fibers.
• myoglobin A small globular protein containing a heme group that carries oxygen to muscles from the blood and stores reserve
oxygen.
• pacemaker A structure that sets the rate at which the heart beats. Under normal conditions, the SA node serves this function
for the heart.
• pericardium A serous membrane that surrounds and protects the heart.
• pulmonary arteries The arteries that take deoxygenated blood away from the right side of the heart and into the capillaries of
the lungs for the purpose of gas exchange.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• pulmonary circulation The part of blood circulation which carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and
returns oxygenated blood back to the heart.
• pulse Pressure waves generated by the heart in systole move the arterial walls, creating a palpable pressure wave felt by
touch.
• Purkinje fibers A bundle of nerve fibers located under the endocardium, which supply nervous impulses to the mycardium's
cardiac muscle tissues.
• sarcomere The basic contractile unit of contractile muscle, which contains myofibril filaments made out of myosin and actin, the
two proteins that slide past one another to cause a muscle contraction.
• sarcomere The basic unit of contractile muscle which contains myosin and actin, the two proteins that slide past one another to
cause a muscle contraction.
• semilunar valves Located at the base of both the trunk of the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and prevent backflow of blood
from the arteries into the ventricles.
• serous pericardium Located deeper than the fibrous pericardium, this structure contains two layers that lubricate the heart to
prevent friction from occurring during heart activity.
• ST segment The line between the QRS complex and the T wave, representing the time when the ventricles are depolarized
before repolarization begins.
• stenosis The narrowing of valves, which prevents them from opening completely.
• Subvalvular apparatus The papillary muscles and the chordae tendineae, known as the subvalvular apparatus, hold the valves
closed so that they do not prolapse.
• systemic circulation The part of blood circulation that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns
deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
• systole The rhythmic contraction of the heart by which blood is ejected from one chamber to the next, or out of the heart and
into the arteries.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• venae cavae The two large vessels, the superior and inferior vena cava, that bring deoxygenated blood from systemic
circulation to the heart.
• ventricle One of two lower chambers of the heart that receives blood from the atria and pumps it out into pulmonary or systemic
circulation, depending on side.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Muscle Contraction and Actin-Myosin Interactions
Skeletal muscle contracts following activation by an action potential. Binding of Acetylcholine at the motor end plate leads to intracellular calcium release
and interactions between myofibrils, eliciting contraction.
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Wikipedia. "Muskel-molekulartranslation." CC BY-SA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Muskel-molekulartranslation.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Heart viewed from above
This anterior view of the heart indicates the semilunar valves, and the aortic and pulmonary valves.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Pulmonary circuit
Diagram of pulmonary circulation. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood in blue.
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Wikipedia. "Illu pulmonary circuit." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_pulmonary_circuit.jpg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Alveoli
A diagram of the alveoli, showing the capillary beds where gas exchange with the blood occurs.
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Wikipedia. "Alveolus diagram." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Pulmonary circuit
Diagram of pulmonary circulation. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood in blue.
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Wikipedia. "Illu pulmonary circuit." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_pulmonary_circuit.jpg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Mammalian Heart
The position of valves ensures proper directional flow of blood through the cardiac interior. Note the difference in the thickness of the muscled walls of
the atrium and the left and right ventricle.
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Wikipedia. "Diagram of the human heart (cropped)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_human_heart_(cropped).svg%23globalusage
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Membranes of the Thoracic Cavity
A transverse section of the thorax, showing the contents of the middle and the posterior mediastinum. The pleural and pericardial cavities are
exaggerated since normally there is no space between parietal and visceral pleura and between pericardium and heart.
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Wikimedia. "Transverse Thorax." Public domain http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Gray968.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Heart Wall
The wall of the heart is composed of three layers, the thin outer epicardium, the thick middle myocardium, and the very thin inner endocardium. The dark
area on the heart wall is scarring from a previous myocardial infarction (heart attack).
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Structure of the heart
Structure diagram of a coronal section of the human heart from an anterior view. The two larger chambers are the ventricles.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Systemic Circuit
The venae cavae and the aorta form the systemic circuit, which circulates blood to the head, extremities and abdomen.
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Wikimedia. "Illu systemic circuit." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_systemic_circuit.svg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Right Ventricular Hypertrophy
If the heart adapts to become too thick, it will not be able to pump blood as efficiently, and heart failure may occur.
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Wikipedia. "Right_Ventricular_hypertrophy.svg." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_hypertrophy#/media/File:Right_Ventricular_hypertrophy.svg
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Cardiac Muscle
The tissue structure of cardiac muscle contains sarcomeres that are made of myofibrils with intercalated disks, that contain cardiomyocytes and have
many mitocondria.
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Wikipedia. "Cardiac_Muscle.png." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_muscle#/media/File:Cardiac_Muscle.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Coronary Circulation
Coronary arteries labeled in red text and other landmarks in blue text.
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Wikipedia. "Coronary arteries." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coronary_arteries.svg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Cross section of heart indicating heart valves
The four valves determine the pathway of blood flow (indicated by arrows) through the heart
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University of California San Francisco. "Pediatric Cardiothoracic Surgery - Heart Valve Disease." Public domain http://pediatricct.surgery.ucsf.edu/conditions-procedures/heart-valve-disease.aspx View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Fibrous Rings of the Heart
Transverse section of the heart showing the fibrous rings surrounding the valves.
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Wikipedia. "Gray495." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray495.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Sarcomere
A single sarcomere unit with all functional areas labeled, including thick and thin filaments, Z lines, H zone, I bands, and A band.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Cardiac Conduction System
The system of nerves that work together to set the heart rate and stimulate muscle cell depolarization within the heart.
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Wikipedia. "ConductionsystemoftheheartwithouttheHeart-en.svg." CC BY-SA 3.0
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinoatrial_node#/media/File:ConductionsystemoftheheartwithouttheHeart-en.svg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Myoglobin
The heme component of myoglobin, shown in orange, binds oxygen. Myoglobin provides a back-up store of oxygen to muscle cells.
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Wikimedia. "Myoglobin and heme." CC BY-SA http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Myoglobin_and_heme.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Sliding Filament Model of Contraction
Muscle fibers in relaxed (above) and contracted (below) positions
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Wikipedia. "Sarcomere." CC BY-SA http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarcomere.svg View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Animation of Myosin and Actin
This animation shows myosin filaments (red) sliding along the actin filaments (pink) to contract a muscle cell.
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Wikimedia. "Actin Myosin." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Actin_Myosin.gif View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Animation of a Normal ECG Wave
The red lines represent the movement of the electrical signal through the heart.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
ECG
Illustration of a patient undergoing a 12-lead ECG.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Normal Systole ECG
The U wave is not visible in all ECGs.
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Wikipedia. "Systole QRS Complex." GNU FDL http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Systole_QRS_Complex.png View on Boundless.com
Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Opening and Closing of Heart Valves
The closing of the heart valves generates the "lub, dub" sounds that can be heard though a stethoscope.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The Cardiac Cycle
Changes in contractility lead to pressure differences in the heart's chambers that drive the movement of blood.
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Frank Starling's Law
This chart indicates stroke volume compared to ventricular preload, with labels for preload dependent zone, responsive patient SVV > 10%, and
nonresponsive patient SVV < 10 %.
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Wikipedia. "Frank_Starling’s_curve.png." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_output#/media/File:Frank_Starling%E2%80%99s_curve.png View on
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
The mammalian heart
Chronic exercise results in increased pumping efficiency, a greater filling capacity and greater responsiveness of the heart to increased energy
demands.
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Wikimedia. "Diagram of the human heart (cropped)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diagram_of_the_human_heart_(cropped).svg View on
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
Attribution
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• Wikipedia. "endothelial cell." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/endothelial%20cell
• Wikipedia. "Myocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardium
• Wiktionary. "cardiomyocyte." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cardiomyocyte
• Wikipedia. "Endocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocardium
• Wiktionary. "epicardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/epicardium
• Wiktionary. "endocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/endocardium
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The cardiovascular system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_cardiovascular_system%23The_Heart
• Wikipedia. "Atrium (heart)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrium_(heart)
• Wikipedia. "pulsatile." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pulsatile
• Wikipedia. "Ventricle (heart)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricle_(heart)
• Wiktionary. "systole." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systole
• Wiktionary. "diastole." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diastole
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The cardiovascular system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_cardiovascular_system%23Heart_Chambers
• Wikipedia. "Systemic circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemic_circulation
• Wiktionary. "pulmonary circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pulmonary_circulation
• Wiktionary. "systemic circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systemic_circulation
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• Wikipedia. "Pulmonary circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_circulation
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/alveoli--2
• Wikipedia. "cardiac skeleton." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cardiac%20skeleton
• Wikipedia. "fibrous rings." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/fibrous%20rings
• Wikipedia. "Cardiac skeleton." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_skeleton
• Wiktionary. "collagen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/collagen
• Wikipedia. "pulmonary valve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pulmonary%20valve
• Wikipedia. "aortic valve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/aortic%20valve
• Wikipedia. "Semilunar valves." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilunar_valves%23Semilunar_valves
• Wikipedia. "Semilunar valves." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilunar%20valves
• Wikipedia. "dub." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dub
• Wikipedia. "lub." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lub
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The cardiovascular system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_cardiovascular_system%23.22Lub-Dub.22
• Wikipedia. "syncytium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/syncytium
• Wikipedia. "Sarcomeres." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcomeres
• Wikipedia. "intercalated discs." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/intercalated%20discs
• Wikipedia. "Myofibrils." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myofibrils
• Wiktionary. "sarcomere." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sarcomere
• Wikipedia. "Myocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardium%23Appearance
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
• Wikipedia. "Coronary circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary%20circulation
• Wikipedia. "Coronary circulation." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_circulation
• Wiktionary. "myocardial infarction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/myocardial_infarction
• Wiktionary. "ischemia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ischemia
• Wikipedia. "Mitral valve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitral_valve%23Normal_physiology
• Wikipedia. "Semilunar valves." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semilunar_valves%23Atrioventricular_or_cuspid_valves
• Wikipedia. "Subvalvular apparatus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subvalvular%20apparatus
• Wiktionary. "mitral valve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mitral_valve
• Wikipedia. "Atrioventricular valves." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atrioventricular%20valves
• Wikipedia. "lactate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lactate
• Wikipedia. "Myocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardium%23Metabolism
• Wiktionary. "basal metabolic rate." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/basal_metabolic_rate
• Wiktionary. "myoglobin." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/myoglobin
• Wikipedia. "Human heart." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_heart%23Structure
• Wiktionary. "ventricle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ventricle
• Wiktionary. "myocardium." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/myocardium
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The cardiovascular system." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_cardiovascular_system%23The_Heart
• Wiktionary. "heart." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/heart
• Wikipedia. "Aerobic conditioning." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_conditioning
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
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Cardiovascular System: The Heart
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