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whose fame was spread through the Greek world, where wreaths were offered as prizes. At these sacred places, the prestige of the cities was promoted through votive offerings and the eminence of the delegations that visited the sites. The immortal, anthropomorphic gods of the Greeks were part of the universe and intervened in human affairs. The shaping of the pantheon, mythology and worship practices followed the development of the city-state. 1 With Alexander the Great and his Successors, the institutions and practices of Greek civilisation, including administration, economy, architecture and fine arts, spread over the coast of the Mediterranean and as far as into the heart of Asia. They infiltrated regional civilisations and were at the same time subject to local cultures. The History of the West took a new turn, when Constantine the Great, in A.D. 324, decided to transfer the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople, at the point where Europe meets Asia. Taking with it the legacy of Roman institutions, the Greek language and the adoption of Christianity as a new spiritual choice and cohesive element in society, the eastern Roman Empire was transformed into a formidable political entity with a distinct cultural identity and universal brilliance, the Byzantine Empire. The exhibition Leaving a Mark on History: Treasures from Greek Museums seeks to illuminate vital stages along this three-millennium path of the Greeks, who left their indelible mark on history. It presents rare or unique objects, either in the form of portraits of its protagonists, or as a direct source for major historical and political events or in the form of humanistic, social, religious and cultural concepts and values. The exhibition is under the auspices of the Embassy of Greece to Bulgaria. The energetic involvement of our delegation in ensuring the success of the enterprise was crucial. The Bulgarian cultural and political authorities have wholeheartedly embraced this enterprise and have not spared efforts towards the best result. 2 1. Attic red-figure pelike with an award scene of a music contest winner. 440–430 B.C. Plovdiv, Regional Archaeological Museum 2. Silver tetradrachm of Athens with the head of Athena. ca. 450–440 B.C. 3. Bronze statuette of a barefooted general. ca. 300 B.C. 4. Ostracon for the ostracism of Aristides son of Lysimachus. 482–471 B.C. 5. Hyperpyron of Andronicus II Palaeologus with Theotokos Vlachernitissa. A.D. 1303–1320 or later ORGANISING – SCIENTIFIC COMMITEE Dr George Kakavas, Director of the Numismatic Museum – Acting Director of the National Archaeological Museum, Athens Dr Lyudmil Vagalinski, Director of National Institute of Archaeology with Museum – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Dr Maria Reho, Deputy Director of National Institute of Archaeology with Museum – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Dr Alexandra Christopoulou, Archaeologist, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Yorka Nikolaou, Historian-Numismatist, Numismatic Museum, Athens Stella Dreni, Archaeologist-Numismatist †Dr Polyxeni Bouyia, Archaeologist, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Dr George Kavvadias, Archaeologist, National Archaeological Museum Bessy Drougka, Architect, National Archaeological Museum, Athens Georgios Zafeiris, Member of the diplomatic staff of the Embassy of Greece to Bulgaria GENERAL SUPERVISION – CO-ORDINATION George Kakavas Collaborator: Yorka Nikolaou 3 Dr George Kakavas Director of the Numismatic Museum, Athens Acting Director of the National Archaeological Museum, Athens HONORARY COMMITEE Panos Panagiotopoulos, Minister of Culture and Sports H.E. Mr. Dimosthenis Stoidis, Ambassador of Greece to Bulgaria Dr Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Director of General Directorate of Antiquities, Ministry of Culture and Sports Dr Kostadin Kisyov, Director of the Regional Archaeological Museum, Plovdiv Nikolaos Piperigos, ex Consul General of Greece, Plovdiv, Bulgaria 4 WORKING GROUP Sirma Alexandrova / Petya Andreeva Christina Avronidaki / †Polyxeni Bouyia Kamen Boyadzhiev / Zoi Chasioti / Maria Chidiroglou Ivo Cholakov /Alexandra Christophidou Alexandra Christopoulou / Krastyu Chukalev Sofia Dimaki / Yana Dimitrova-Taseva Miroslava Dotkova / Stella Dreni / Anastasia Gadolou Krassimir Georgiev / Pavlina Ilieva / Georgi Ivanov George Kakavas / Antonis Kampas Krassimira Karadimitrova / George Kavvadias Eleni Konstantinidi-Sybridi / Katerina Kostanti Demeter-Eleni Ladogianni / Evridiki Leka Stamatoula Makrypodi / Katya Manteli Anna Michopoulou / Antonia Nikolakopoulou Yorka Nikolaou / Valentin Novakov Nomiki Palaiokrassa / Constantinos Paschalidis Petya Penkova / Efterpi Ralli / Maria Reho Maria Salta / Yannis Stoyas / Stanimira Taneva Eleni Tourna / Evi Tsota / Chrysanthi Tsouli Evangelos Vivliodetis / Eleni Zosi Treasures from Greek Museum CONSERVATION National Archaeological Museum: Dafni Bika David Delios / Katerina Ioannidou / Irini Kapiri Ourania Kapsokoli / Georgia Karamargiou Tina Koutouvali / Panagiotis Lazaris Maria Lefaki / Yerasimos Makris Ioannis Panagakos / Pantelis Pheleris Sofia Spyridaki / Katerina Xylina Numismatic Museum: Eleni Deligianni Niki Katsikosta / Elena Kontou / Margarita Sorotou Philosophical contemplation, institutions, the art and literature of the western world, have been influenced by the indestructible power of Greek civilisation, which emerged and evolved in the eastern recesses of the Mediterranean basin, subsequently to expand throughout Europe and Asia. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH †Polyxeni Bouyia / Maria Chidiroglou Stella Dreni / Anastasia Gadolou George Kavvadias / Evridiki Leka / Katya Manteli From the first organised societies of the Neolithic period to the transformation of social structures during the course of the early Bronze Age, the magnificent era of the palaces of Crete and mainland Greece, the creation of the city-state, perfecting the alphabet and then establishing democracy and a human scale in society and art, Greek civilisation offered mankind unique institutions and ideas. TRANSLATION INTO BULGARIAN Argyris Makris / Milena Raicheva PHOTOGRAPHS Ioannis Asvestas / George Athanassopoulos Lefteris Galanopoulos / Nikolai Genov Orestis Kourakis / George Mestousis Maria Polychronaki / Makis Skiadaresis Dimitris Sphaelos / Kostas Xenikakis The geographical fragmentation of the country into small regions created a firm orientation towards the sea and the development of city-states. The expansion of a network of sea-trade routes during the Bronze Age in the Aegean and subsequently in the Mediterranean basin, the victorious outcome of the Persian Wars and then the appearance of the Athenian empire drew upon the nautical ingenuity of the Greeks. Seafaring and trade, colonisation and the spread of coinage were determining factors in the development of that original form of socio-political organisation, the city-state. In this concise political society the rulers and ruled were one and the same, politics was associated with the military and judiciary, and religion was interwoven with public and private life. A highly progressive version of this state structure appeared in the direct, radical democracy, which rested on participation, of Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. The conduct of the free citizen had a potentially decisive effect on the autonomy, unity, self-sufficiency and prosperity of his city, since he held the privilege of governing and being governed, of judging and making decisions regarding its own fate. Education was based on literary studies, music and physical exercise, and focused on the Gymnasion, preparing the citizen for the performance of his duties and defense of his homeland, in accordance with the archetype of the καλός κἀγαθός (kalos k’agathos, “beautiful and virtuous”). The success of this training was judged at the competitions, performed at the sanctuaries ADMINISTRATIVE – SECRETARIAL SUPPORT Matina Andromida / Panagiotis Koutsogiannis Periklis Malamitsis / Leonidas Perellis Nikolaos Sougles / Kalliopi Spyrou ARTISTIC CONSULTANT: George Kakavas LAYOUT AND DESIGN: Costas Catsoulas PRINTING: Graphic Arts Nikephorakis DIGITAL PRINTING: J-point (Sofia) LENDERS TO THE EXHIBITION Amphissa Archaeological Museum Ancient Agora Museum, Athens Argos Archaeological Museum Delphi Archaeological Museum Distomo Archaeological Collection Elateia Archaeological Collection Kerameikos Museum, Athens Lamia Archaeological Museum Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki Plovdiv Regional Archaeological Museum Thebes Archaeological Museum TRANSPORTATION OF ANTIQUITIES Orphee Beinoglou International Forwarders S.A. INSURANCE COVERAGE OF ARTWORKS Gras Savoye Willis S.A. SPONSORS 5 MEDIA SPONSOR PUBLIC TELEVISION Leaving a Mark on History MUSEOGRAPHIC STUDY AND DESIGN Bessy Drougka, Architect / Stamatis Zannos, Designer 1 2 3 4 7/11/2013-9/2/2014 1. Attic red-figure pelike with an award scene of a music contest winner. ca. 440–430 B.C. Athens, National Archaeological Museum 2. Marble head of young king, Alexander III the Great (?). Middle Hellenistic period 3. Gold pentadrachm of Ptolemy I Soter. ca. 300–283/2 B.C. 4. Fragment of an honorary decree for Aristotle and Callisthenes. 337–327 B.C. 5. Silver tridrachm of Kos with a discobolus (discus thrower). 480–450 B.C. 5 1 1 The exhibition Leaving a Mark on History: Treasures from Greek Museums, centred on antiquities from Greek museums (apart from one symbolic work from Bulgaria), is divided into six thematic sections: A. History of Sealing. Seal impression and its techniques have been universal and evident throughout the ages and in all cultures. Traces of human marks, as statements of identity and uniqueness, gave gradually way to objects that served the same purpose. Each owner had his own personal seal as proof of his status, office or profession. The seal marked their property, protected their goods during storage and transportation. As amulets or jewellery they satisfied human vanity, eased fears and confirmed interpersonal relationships. Seals are miniature intaglio sculptures that were either carved on semiprecious stones, in gold, ivory or clay, or cast in glass and faience. They had already been introduced in the early Neolithic period indicating social interrelations between communities. In the Bronze Age, seals denote social hierarchy and individual ownership. Minoan and Mycenaean seal-stones and golden signet rings are masterpieces of artistic creation and symbols of palatial authority and royal identity. 2 B. “Great is the state that controls the sea”. The sea has 3 always been for the Greeks a gate of communication, a source of wealth and power. The Aegean islands, as stepping stones, eased the movement of people from the East to the West. In the Upper Palaeolithic period (11000 B.C.), the inhabitants of the Peloponnese travelled to Melos to get obsidian. Mesolithic (8000 B.C.) and Neolithic (7000-3200 B.C.) communities settle in the Aegean islands, the Cyclades and Crete. The early Cycladic civilisation (3200-2000 B.C.) has a “cosmopolitan” character and prevails in the sea-trade of metals. The Minoan thalassocracy (2000-1600 B.C.) of Crete extends up to Samothrace in the north Aegean. The mighty Mycenaean kingdoms conducted the Trojan War to enhance their position in sea-trade. In the 8th to 6th century B.C. the Greek colonisation expands in the Mediterranean. But above all this, the climax of the Greek predominance at sea is the “great state that controlled the sea” the city of Athens with the Athenian League of the 5th century B.C. In Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine times the Greeks never ceased to predominate in seafaring. 1 literacy, which, in combination with physical, musical and intellectual education, harmoniously combined, formed the Paideia, the ideal education of a citizen, as explored by philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. in Asia. Alexander the Great, an outstanding king and general, transformed the history of the southeastern Mediterranean reaching as far as India. In the same region, in the early 3rd c. B.C., were created the kingdoms of the Antigonids in the Balkans, the Seleucids in Syria and Asia Minor, the Ptolemies in Egypt and the Attalids at Pergamum, each with important rulers. Julius Caesar, Octavian Augustus and Septimius Severus were Roman rulers that marked the fortunes of the Roman state, along with Constantine I the Great, founder of the Byzantine state. Δ. Olympic Ideal. Αthletics were associated from the outset with the cult of gods and heroes. The contests at the Pan-Hellenic sanctuaries at Olympia, Delphi, Isthmia and Nemea contributed in forging the identity of the Greeks and maintaining their cohesion. Although the winners enjoyed many honours, the prize at these games was a wreath of a sacred plant. The spirit of friendship and fraternity that arises from fair competition, as a prerequisite for a peaceful and better world, led to the revival of the Olympic Games in modern times. 2 Γ. Democracy and Education. Demos, the first component of the Greek word Democracy, is as old as the Greek language. It is first attested in the 13th c. B.C. on Mycenaean clay tablets (da-mo, i.e. a region with its population). Τhe term Democracy was on the other hand introduced in the 5th c. B.C. (Herodotus, Thucydides), to express the essence of the main principal of the newly established Athenian system of the autonomous (shelf-governed) city-state; the will and the power (Kratos) to decide belongs to the polis (the corpus of the citizens). The proper function of the political, military and law institutions of the Athenian state presupposed a widespread 3 2 Ε1. The Persian Wars. The term Persian Wars applies to the continuous struggles of the Greeks against the Persian invaders of Greece, which took place in the first quarter of the 5th century B.C. Besides their final victorious outcome for the Greek side, these wars constitute the first joint military campaign of the Greeks against a common adversary. Their cause was the expanding Persian policy. The restraining of the Persians on the Greek territory was a major milestone, not only in Greek history but also in European, since it hindered their march further to the West. 3 Ε2. Rulers that left their mark in History. Philipp II, the charismatic king of Macedonia, strengthened his rule and paved the way to his son and heir, Alexander III the Great, for his large military campaign 4 6 5 5 2 are mentioned in the Linear B tablets. The poems of Homer and Hesiod laid down the genealogy of gods (Theogony) for the Greeks, in which the Twelve Gods safeguard moral order, protect, help or punish mortals. Cults and contests formed the preconditions for the organisation of city-state. The power of natural elements gave rise to a multitude of mythological figures and heroes who were later replaced by the martyrs for Christ’s faith. A mass shift to Christianity and the imperial support led to its ecumenical predominance. The new religion marked both the public and private behaviour of the Byzantines and their art. 3 4 6 1. Ostracon for the ostracism of Themistocles son of Neocles. 480–470 B.C. 2. Attic red-figure hydria showing Sappho reciting a poem. 440–430 B.C. 3. Bronze group of wrestlers. 2nd–1st c. B.C. 4. 1st winner silver medal of the 1st International Olympic Games. Athens, 1896 5. Cup-sherd with a discobolus (discus thrower). End of 5th c. B.C. 6. Marble grave stele with an athlete (detail). 410–400 B.C. 1. Mycenaean gold signet ring. Late Helladic ΙΙ Β – ΙΙΙ Α1 period (2nd half 15th–early 14th c. B.C.) 2. Clay sealing. Early Helladic period (2300/2200 B.C.) 3. Almond-shaped jasper seal-stone with three dolphins. Late Minoan I period (1600–1450 B.C.) 4. Pictorial crater sherd with a ship. Mycenaean period (12th c. B.C.) 5. Silver didrachm with an octopus, Eretria. ca. 500–480 B.C. 6. Clay frying pan vessel with a ship (detail). Early Cycladic II period (2700–2300 B.C.) ΣΤ. From Olympus to Heaven. Most of the Olympian gods 4 4 6 1 1. Pottery sherd with a kitharist (guitar-player). ca. 500–490 B.C. 2. Attic white-ground lekythos with an archer. 480–475 B.C. 3. Silver denarius of Marcus Junius Brutus. 43–42 B.C. 4. Marble head of Alexander III the Great – Heracles. ca. 300 B.C. 5. Gold solidus of Constantine I the Great. A.D. 307–337 6. Fragment of marble inscription in honour of Livia (detail). Tiberius’ reign, A.D. 14–37 6 5 1. Amethyst seal-stone with Zeus/Eagle and Ganymedes. Roman imperial period (1st–3rd c. A.D.) 2. Attic red-figure pelike with Zeus. ca. 470 B.C. 3. Gold solidus of Heraclius with a cross. A.D. 610–613 4. Lead seal (bulla) of general Katakalon Kekaumenos with archangel Michael. A.D. 1056–1057 5. Fragment of black-figure white-ground lekythos with the bust of Athena. 470–460 B.C. 6. Amber seal-stone with the “Judgement of Paris” (detail). Roman imperial period (1st–3rd c. A.D.) 5