Download e-Content for B.A Ist Year Sociology (CBCS) 2016. (Remaining

e-Content for B.A Ist Year Sociology (CBCS) 2016.
(Remaining Portion)
Unit-3
Basic Concepts



Society; Community; Association
Social Groups: Primary, Secondary and Reference Group
Role and Status; Values and Norms; Folkways and Mores
Topic1(a): Society
Introduction:
The simplest definition of society is a group of people who share a defined territory and
a culture. In sociology, we take that definition a little further by arguing that society is
also the social structure and interactions of that group of people. Social structure is the
relatively enduring patterns of behaviour and relationships within a society. Thus, a
society is not only the group of people and their culture, but the relationships between
the people and the institutions within that group.
The term ‘Society’ is the most fundamental one in sociology. It is derived from the
Latin word ‘socius’, which means ‘companionship’. And companionship is based on
sociability. It is this element of sociability, argues George Simmel, which defines the
true essence of society. It indicates that man always lives in the company of other
people. ‘Man is a social animal’, said Aristotle centuries ago. Man needs society for his
living, working and enjoying life.
Definitions:
1. In their book on "Society: An Introductory Analysis “, MacIver and Page define:
"Society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid, of many
groupings and divisions, of controlling of human behaviour and of liberties. This ever
changing,
complex system, we call society. It is the web of socia1relationships. Ant it
is always changing”.
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2. According to Lapiere, “The term society refers not to group of people, but to the
complex pattern of the norms of interaction, that arise among and between them”.
3. According to Ginsberg, “A society is a collection of individuals united by certain
relations or modes of behavior which marks them off from others who do not enter into
the relations or who differ from them in behavior”.
4. According to Parsons. “Society may be defined as total complex of human relationships
in so far as they grow out of action in terms of means-end relationship, intrinsic or
symbolic”.
5. According to Prof.Giddings , “Society is the union itself, the organization ,the sum of
formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together”.
Characteristics of Society
1.
Society depends on Likeness. The principal of likeness is essential for society.
Likeness refers to the similarities. Society exits among those who have the similarities
about their needs, goals, outlook etc.
2. Society rests on Difference too. If men are exactly alike, their social relationships
would be very much limited. There would be little give and take, or little reciprocity, if
there would no differences.
3. Cooperation: Society is based on cooperation. It is the essential part of our social life.
Cooperation arises when men realize that they have common interests. It refers to the
mutual working together for the attainment of a common goal.
4. Interdependence. Social relationships are characterised by interdependence. One
depends upon the other for the satisfaction of one’s needs.
5. Society is Dynamic: Change is ever present in society. No society can ever remain
constant for any length of time. Changes may take place slowly and gradually or
suddenly.
6. Culture: Each society is unique because it has its own way of life, called culture.
Culture is not society, but an element of society. Human society constitutes interacting
people; while culture is patterning of their behavior. According to E.B. Tylor, “culture
includes knowledge, law, morals, custom any other capabilities and habits acquired by
man as a member of society”.
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7.
Mutual interaction and mutual awareness: Society is composed of people. Without
people there can be no society, social relationships and no social life at all. Individuals
are in continuous interaction with other individuals of society. Society is understood as a network
of social relationships. But all relations are social relations. Social relationships exist only when
the members are aware of each other. Social interaction is made possible because of mutual
awareness.
8. Social control: Society has its own ways and means of controlling the behavior of its members.
Along with cooperation, competition and conflict are also exists in society. Hence, the behavior
and activities of people are to be regulated by informal and formal means of social control.
9. Societal Development
Our social world consists of thousands of human societies. It is said that there has been a
general historical trend of socio- cultural evolution, a process which is more or less similar
to biological evolution. A society like an organism has to adapt to its environment in order
to exploit food resources. In this process of socio-cultural evolution, some societies have
evolved further and faster than others; some have become “stuck” at a particular level. In
general, all have changed in ways that are unique to themselves.
Thus, it is on the basis of the level of technology or reliance on the basic type of
subsistence strategy, societies can be generally classified as1 . Hunting and Food Gathering Societies:
As Gerhard Len ski pointed out in his “Human Societies” (1970) the oldest and the simplest type
of society is the hunting society. A small and sparse population; a nomadic way of life and a
very primitive technology characterize such a society. They have the most primitive tools such as
stone axes, spears and knives.
Hunting societies consist of very small, primary groups and their number not exceeds generally
40-50 members. They are nomadic in nature they have to leave one area as soon as they have
exhausted its food resources. Family and kinship are the only interconnected s o c i a l institutions
which these societies have political institution are not found as all people are considered to be
equal as they virtually have no property. Division of labour is limited along the lines of age and
sex. Men and women, young and old perform different role, but there are no specialized
occupational roles. There is gender-based division of labour, but there is no gender inequality as
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such, production is communal and cooperative and the distribution system is based on sharing.
Religion is not developed among these people in to a complex institution. They tend to see the
world as populated by unseen spirits that must be taken into account but not necessarily
worshipped.
The economy of hunting and food gathering societies is subsistence based. They collect enough
for the needs of their people and there is hardly any surplus in such an economy. The primary
means of production consist of their hunting and gathering skills and their own labour. All ablebodied
adults and children engage in hunting and food gathering activities. Sharing is one of
the central economic characteristics of a hunting and food gathering society. The most common
type of social relationship is co-operation. Co-operation is important because hunting and
gathering activities need group efforts. The sharing of the produce is common. There is no
competition and conflict too is minimal as there is no accumulated surplus to fight over. The
concept of private property as it applies to personal possessions is absent. Hence, private
property as we understand it did not exist in hunting and gathering societies.
The rate of social change in nomadic hunting and gathering societies was very slow. A few such
societies still exist, for e.g. the Bushmen of South Africa, some Eskimo tribes etc.
Around 10 to 12 thousand years ago, some hunting and food gathering groups began to adopt a
new subsistence strategy based on the domestication of herds of animals. Many people living in
deserts of other regions which are not suited for cultivation, adopted strategy and started
taming animals such as goats or sheep which could be used as a source of food. Pastoral
societies still exists today in the modern world. These societies are larger and may have hundreds
or even thousands of members, and these societies provided an assured food supply. Even in
these societies, like the hunters and gatherers people are nomadic in nature because of their
seasonal need to find sufficient grazing areas for their herds.
2.Horticultural Societies
Horticultural societies first came into existence in the Middle East about
4000 BC
and
subsequently spread to China and Europe; those that survive today are found mainly in sub
Saharan Africa.
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Horticultural society is associated with the elementary discovery that plants can be grown from
seeds. While herding is common in areas with poor soil, horticultural is more common as means
of subsistence in regions with fertile soil. Horticultural societies first appeared at about the same
time as pastoral societies. Examples for horticultural societies are Gururumba tribe in New
Guinea and Masai people of Kenya.
Horticultural societies are just subsistence societies like hunting gathering societies. They
specialize in growing plants such as wheat, rice and the horticulturists are typically based on
a‘slash and burn’ technology. This is a type of strategy in which people clear areas of land, burn
the trees and plants they have cut down, rise crops for 2 to 3 years until the soil is exhausted and
then repeat the process elsewhere. Unlike the pastorists, horticulturists have larger population
and stay in one place longer before they migrate in search of better conditions.
As this society assures better food supply there is an existence of surplus which leads to
specialization of roles which supported production and trading of variety of products such as
boats, salt, pottery etc. This allowed some wealthy individuals to become more powerful than
others and lead to emergence of political institutions in the form of chieftainships. Warfare
became more common in these societies and horticultural societies are also the first known
societies to support the institution of slavery. As these people had a permanent settlement they
could create more elaborate cultural artifacts like houses, thrones etc.
3 Agricultural or Feudal Societies
Agricultural societies first arose in ancient Egypt and were based on the introduction of the
harnessing of animal power. The mode of production of the hunter gathering society which
produces none of its food, and the horticultural society which produces food in small gardens
rather than big fields . Invention of the plough had enabled people to make a great leap forward
in food production and has enabled a person to achieve great productivity. It also made it
possible to work on land which as been previously useless for food production. Size of the
agricultural societies is much greater than the horticultural of pastoral communities. The full
time specialists who engage themselves in non-agricultural activities tend to concentrate in
some compact places which lead to the birth of cities.
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In
course
political
of
time,
agricultural
institutions. Power
societies
was concentrated
led
to the establishment of more elaborate
in the hand of a single individual
and a
hereditary monarchy emerged who became powerful. Court system providing justice also emerged
and these developments made the state a separate powerful institution. For the first time, two
distinct social classes those who own the land and those who work on the land of others made
their appearance and this created major differences between the strata. Warfare became a regular
feature and for the first time, full time permanent armies made their appearances. Proper
roads, waterways were developed and such developments brought the previously isolated
communities into contact with on another. Since more food was produced than is necessary for
subsistence, agricultural societies were able to support people whose sole purpose is to
provide creative ideas to the culture. Hence poets, writers, artists, scientists were encouraged
and new cultural artifacts such as paintings, statues, building and stadiums came into existence.
Hence the agricultural societies had a more complex social structure and culture compared to
the earlier societies.
Feudal societies emerged in Europe at that stage when the state was unable any longer to
exercise direct control over the population. Political power was decentralized in the sense that
warriors were able to claim rights over a local territory and enforce their own brand of justice by
means of military might. Unarmed peasants were unable to challenge the power of the warrior
(or noble) who had personal supporters with horses and weapons. Military power was linked
to wealth, which meant, in this case, agricultural land. The greater a noble’s military power,
the more land he could control; and the larger his estates, the more warriors he could support in
order to secure his domain.
Production activity was carried out by peasants, who lived on and cultivated the land which was
controlled by the feudal lords. The lords compelled the peasants to hand over a considerable
portion of the agricultural goods that they produced and also to perform customary personal
services for the benefit of the lord.
In the early periods of feudalism, the link between a noble and his peasants was maintained in
the form of a personal agreement which ended upon the death of either party. But
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eventually the condition of the peasants and the privileged status of the nobles became
hereditary, passing down from one generation to another.
The nobility and the serfs thus emerged as two distinct strata in feudal society and the clergy
formed a third stratum. The Catholic Church had enormous secular power, since it possessed the
right to income from vast expanses of land. As men of learning, clergymen were taken
for granted by most of the population, a world view which included the nation that the
supremacy of the king, the privileges of the nobility and the lowly position of serfs were all
ordained by God . Thus the power of the Church was used to legitimate the system of social
inequality.
In Europe from the twelfth century onward, feudal society was affected by the gradual
transformation
of local markets into permanent towns, with important implications for the
emergence of a fourth stratum. Eventually the townsmen (or burgesses), using wealth acquired
form trade strengthened the economic power of the burgesses as against that of the nobility.
Thus, feudal society came to comprise four distinct social strata: the nobility and the clergy, who
controlled most of the land and enjoyed the agricultural surplus; the serfs, who cultivated the
land and were bound to it ; and the burgesses. These classes were, by and large, closed ; access to
the nobility or the peasantry was determined by birth, though occasionally peasants could
escape from feudal bondage to the towns, and rich merchants were sometimes able to
purchase titles and estates. The clergy was, of course an exception to the rule of hereditary
classes and they had no legal heirs.
Hence, the agricultural and feudal societies had a far more complex Social Structure compared to
the earlier societies.
4 . INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
The industrial mode of production began in England about 250 years ago. It became a very
successful one and has since spread all over the world. Industrial societies have existed only in
the very modern era, dating from the industrialisation of Great Britain in the late 18
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century. The most advanced industrial societies today are found in North America, Europe and
East Asia including Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea. Countries such as India, Mexico,
Brazil and some African countries have also become industrialized to a great extent.
Industrial Revolution spanning the later 18th to the early 19th centuries is an event of great
socio-economic and historical significance. Technology based on modern scientific knowledge
lead to higher rate of technology innovation. These innovations in turn brought about a flood of
social changes.
Division of labour became highly complex and tens of thousands new specialised jobs were
created. The family lost many of its function as it no longer remained as a producing unit but had
to be content with as a unit of consumption.
Industrial societies gave rise to a number of secondary group such as corporations, political
parties, business houses and orgainsations of various kind. Primary groups tend to loose their
importance and more social life takes place in the context of secondary groups. New life styles
and values created a much more heterogeneous culture which spread its influence far and wide.
Families and kinship as social institutions tend to lose their importance. The family lost many of
his functions. It no longer remained as a producing unit but has to be content with as a unit of
consumption. It lost the main responsibility of educating the young ones. Kinship ties are
weakened. Kinship does not play an important role in unifying and controlling people.
Religious institutions are no longer paying an important role in controlling the behaviour of
the people. People hold many different and competing values and beliefs. The world no longer
remains as the God – centred world for it is looked upon as the man-centred one. Various
technological and scientific development have
made
religion
lose
its
hold
as
an
unquestioned source of moral authority.
State which assumed the central power in the industrial society is more known for its
welfare
activities
than
for
the regulative functions. State is increasingly involved in the
economic, educational, medical, military and other activities.
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5. POST INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
The concept of Post Industrial Society was first formulated in 1962 by Daniel Bell and
subsequently in his seminal work (Coming of postindustrial Society – 1974). It described the
economic and social changes in the late twentieth century. According to Bell in the economy this
is reflected in the decline of goods production and manufacturing as the main form of economic
activity, to be replaced by services. With regard to class structure, a new class of
professional and technical occupations have come in to existence. In all spheres like economic,
political and social decision making this new class influenced in making a new intellectual
technology. The postindustrial society is predominated by a manufacturing based economy and
moved on to a structure of society based on the provision of information, innovation, finance and
services. The economy underwent a transition from the production of goods to the provision of
services and knowledge became
a valued
form
of
capital.
Through
the
process
of
globalisation and automation, the value and importance to the economy of the blue collar,
unionized work, including manual labour (eg-assembly- line work) declined and those of
professional workers) grew in value and prevalence. Behavioral and information sciences and
technologies are developed and implemented.
Thus through these different types of societies we have understood that the type of society in
which man lived in the beginning is very different from the type of society in which he lives
today. The story of human social life has undergone several forms and changes. Historically,
societies have taken number of different forms and have changed in ways that are unique
themselves.
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Topic 1(b): Community
Introduction:
In sociological literature, the concept of the community is ill defined and the most loosely used
concept. It is used in an omnibus way to refer to a wide variety of specific social units.in
common parlance, the word community is used for a collection of people who do related kind of
work, such as the “teacher’s community” or the “doctor’s community”. It is also used to denote a
collection of people sharing something in common as the “Muslim community” or “Hindu
community” without necessarily living in a particular area. The term has been used in sociological
literature to refer directly to types of population settlements ,such as rural or urban community,
and to social networks whose members share common characteristics apart from or in addition to
common location.it has also been used to primarily focus on cultural differences as traditional
communities and modern communities. A nineteenth century sociologist F.Tonnies defined
‘community’ in his book Geminschaft and Gesallschaft(community and society) “as an organic ,
‘natural’ kind of social collectivity whose members are bound together by a sense of belonging,
created out of everyday contacts covering the whole range of human activities”. Another noted
sociologist Robert Redfield talked of ‘Little and Great’ communities. ‘Little’ community is the
one which is homogenous, e.g. village or a tribe. While as ‘Great’, community is characterised by
heterogeneity, specialization and complex division of labour like city.
Some important definitions of community:
1. Bogardus says, “Community is a social group with some degree of ‘we feeling’ and living in a
given area”.
2. Kingsley Davies, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of
social life”.
3. MacIver argues, “Community is an area of social living marked by some degree of social
coherence”.
4. R.E.Park writes, “Community, in the broadest sense of the term, has a spatial and a geographical
connotation”.
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Mike O’Donnel, in his book ‘A text book of Sociology’, has analyzed various definitions of
community and grouped them in three main categories:
1. The term community is employed to describe a fixed locality as a basis of social
organization, thus, from this point of view, a traditional rural village is a community
where people are born live and die.
2. Community is used to refer local social system or set of relationships that centre upon a
given locality. From this view, it is concentration of relationships, rather than the
geographical factor that matters.
3. The term community is also used to describe the quality of relationship, which produces a
strong sense of shared identity.
The main elements of Community:
1) Locality and 2) We feeling or Community sentiment.
A community is a territorial group. It always occupies some geographic area. Locality alone
cannot make a group, a community. Sometimes people residing in the same area may not have
any contacts and communications. A community is essentially an area of common living with a
feeling of belonging. Community sentiment means a feeling of belonging together.
Characteristics of Community
(i)
Community refers to an aggregate o f ’ individuals,
(ii) It is associated with a locality.
(iii) The members of the community have strong community sentiments o r a sense of belongingness or we
feeling.
(iv) Community as a group of people i s created spontaneously over a long period of time.
(v) It has more permanence or endurance than those groups which are created with a purpose.
(vi) Community serves wider ends.
(vii) A community is usually associated with a specific n a m e .
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Difference between society & Community:
Society
1
Community
Society is a web of social relationships Community consists of a group of people living in a
particular area with some degree of we feeling
2
A definite geographic area is not
essential aspect of society
A definite geographic area is essential aspect of
community
3
Community sentiment may or may
not be present in society
Community sentiment is the essential
element of community
4
5
6
Society is abstract
Community is concrete
Society is wider. There can be
more than one community in a
society
Community is smaller than society
Society involves both likeness and
difference. Common interest and
diverse interests are in society
Likeness is more important than difference in
Community. There ismorecommon interests
amongthe membersofcommunity
Topic.1(c): ASSOCIATION:
Introduction:
As a social being, man always lives in groups. An association is a special kind of social group. It
is the characteristic of modern complex society. Association
together
and get organized
for fulfillment
is a group of people, who come
of specific goals or purpose.
Sometimes
limited number of goals exists behind such organizations. For example, you may have seen the
working of Mohalla Welfare Committees,
also many other such associations
or cricket
like voluntary
club in your neighborhood. There
associations,
are
music club and trade
unions.MacIver and Page in their book ,“Society: An Introductory Analysis” argue , “there are
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three ways in men seek the fulfillment of their ends.First,they may act independently, each
following his own way without thought of his fellows and their actions ….Second they may seek
them through conflict with one another…Finally ,men may pursue their ends in company ,on
some co-operative basis, so that each is in some degree and manner contributing to the ends of
his fellows.” The method of co-operative pursuit may be spontaneous, such as providing a
helping hand o a stranger. It may be determined by the customs of community, as in case of
farmers assisting their neighbors at harvesting time. On the other hand, a group may organize itself
expressly for pursuing certain of its interests together. When this happens, an association is born.
Thus, it can be saidthat an association is formed when People organize with a particular purpose
or set of purposes in their minds. It may be short-lived, and importance is attached to the group
members and specificity of the goal. It mostly functions through written laws and rules.
Definitions:
1. According to MacIver and Page, “an association is a group organized for the pursuit of an
interest or group of interests in common”.
2. According to P.Gisbert, “Association is a group of people united for a specific or limited
number of purposes”.
3. According to Bogardus, “Association is usually working together of people to achieve
some purposes”.
4. According to Gillin and Gillin, “An association is a group of individuals united for
specific purpose or purposes and held together by recognized or sanctioned mode of
procedure or behaviour”.
5. According to Morris Ginsberg, “An association is a group of social beings related to one
another by the fact that they possess or have instituted in common an organization with
a view to securing a specific end or specific ends”.
Characteristics of Association
The main characteristics of association are as follows:
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(i)
Association-a Human Group: An association is formed or created by people .It is a
social group. Without people, there can be no association. However, all groups are
not associations, because association is an organized group. An unorganized group
like crowd or mob cannot be an association.
(ii)
Common interest or interests: an association is not merely a collection of
individuals .It consists those individuals who have more or less the same interests.
Accordingly, those who have political interests may join political associations and
those having religious interests join religious associations and so on.
(iii)
Co-operative Spirit: An association is based on co-operative spirit of its members
.people work together to achieve some definite purpose. For example ,a political party
has to work together as a united group on the basis of co-operation in order to fulfill
its objective of coming to power.
(iv)
Organization: associations denote some kind of organization. An association is
known essentially as an organized group. Organization gives stability and proper
shape to an association. Organization refers to the way in which statuses and roles
are distributed among the members.
(v)
Set rules and regulations: association as an organized group is based on some rules
and regulations. These rules and regulations help guide the members of association
towards its objectives .
(vi)
Artificial nature: association is artificial creation .it is man made in nature.it does
not grow naturally or spontaneously.
(vii)
Degree of permanence:
the degree of association varies from association to
association and even on the permanence of its members. That is some associations
live for a long time while some are short lived ,and some members keep their
membership active for a long time and some members leave the association in midway.
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Difference between association and community
Association
Membership in an association is
voluntary.
Association has some specific goals.
It does not necessarily imply spatial
aspects.
It may be short-lived or longer
lasting.
It may have legal status.
It may have written or unwritten rules
and regulations.
It is partial and may be regarded as
part of community.
Community
Individuals become the members of any
community by birth.
It serves the collective interests in general.
It is marked by location.
It is generally stable in nature.
It does not have legal status.
It is regulated by customs, traditions and
folkways etc.
It is integral.
Topic 2(a): Social Groups:
Introduction:
As a social creature, man cannot live alone. At every moment of life he needs the company and
assistance of his fellow beings. The great Greek Philosopher-Aristotle said long back that man is
a social animal. He further remarked that he who does not live in society is either a beast or an
angel. Men everywhere live in groups. Man’s daily life is made up largely by participating in
groups. A social group existed when two or more people are in direct or indirect contact and
communication. The members of the group stimulate and respond to one another in some
meaningful way. This mutual stimulation & response of individuals and groups is social
interaction. The nature and character of social relationship underlie different forms of social
groups such as primary and secondary groups, In Groups and Out Groups, Organised and
Unorganised groups, Formal and Informal groups and so on.
Definition of Social Group
1. H M Johnson: A social group is a system of social interaction
2. R M MacIver & C H Page: Social group is any collection of human beings who are brought
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into human relationship with one another.
3.Ogburn & Nimkoff: When ever two or more individuals come together & influence one
another they may be said to constitute a social group.
Characteristics of Social Groups:
The main characteristics of social groups areas follows:
1. Collection o f individual: Social groups consists of people. Without individuals there
can be no groups. Just as we cannot have a college or a university without students and
teachers we can not have a group in the absence of people.
2. Interaction among members: Social interaction is the very basis of group life. Hence
mere collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must have a
interaction. Asocial group, is in fact a system of social interaction. The limits of social
groups are marked by the limits of social interaction.
3. Mutaual Awareness: Group life involves mutual awareness. Group members are
aware of one another and their behaviour is determined by this mutual recognition.
4. ‘We– feeling’: We feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to
identify themselves with the groups. It represents group unity.‘ We– feeling creates
sympathy in and fosters cooperation among members. It helps group members to defend
their interests collectively.
5.Group Unity and solidarity: Group members are tied by the sense of unity. The
solidarity or integration of a group is largely dependent upon the frequency, the variety,
and the emotional quality of the interactions of its members. A family or a friends group,
or a religious group is highly united and integrated, because its members are related by
several common interests and have frequent social contacts with one another and express
a high degree of morale and of loyalty. Unity is maintained more often by conscious
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efforts.
6. Common Interests: the interests and ideals of group are common. Groups are mostly
formed or established for the fulfilment of certain interests. Form of groups differs
depending upon the common interests of the group. Hence are political groups, religious
groups, economic groups, and soon.
Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are
supposed to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores,
traditions etc. They may be written or unwritten norms or standards. Every group has its
own ways and means of punishing or correcting those who go against the rules.
8. Size of the groups: Social groups vary in size. A group may be small as tha t of dyad
(two members’ groupe. eg. husband and wife family) or as big as that of a political party
having lakhs of members.
9. Groups are Dynamic: Social groups are not static but dynamic.
They are subject to change whether slow or fast. Old members die and new members are
born. Whether due to internal or normal pressures, groups undergo changes.
Importance of Social Groups:
The study of human society is essentially the study of human groups. No man exists
without a society and no society exists without groups. Groups have become a part and
parcel of our life.
1. Survival becomes problematic without Groups: Groups have become
so
necessary that our very survival becomes problematic and doubtful in their
absence. Man by birth itself has the biological potentiality of becoming man the
social being.
2.Man becomes man only among men: Various studies have convincingly proved
that man fails to develop human qualities in the absence of human
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environment. The biologically blossoms only in the context of groups.
3.Groups help Social survival also : Man by engaging himself in constant
relations with other she learns things and mends his ways. In brief, from birth
to death, man s engaged in the process of socialization which helps him
to develop a personality of his own.
Classification of Social Groups:
Different sociologists have talked about different social groups viz; Primary & Secondary and
Reference Groups; In Groups and Out Groups; Organised and Unorganised Groups; Formal and
Informal Groups ; Involuntary & Voluntary Groups; However in this chapter we will discuss
only Primary & Secondary and Reference Groups.
Topic 2(b): Primary Groups:
Meaning and Definition of primary groups
The concept of ‘primary groups’ is a significant contribution of C.H.Cooley to the social
thought. Primary groups are found in all the societies. The primary group is the nucleus
of all social organisations. A few persons come into direct contact with another in a small
group. It is known as the seedbed of society. These persons meet face to face for mutual
help, companionship and discussion of common questions.
Cooley used the term ‘primary groups’ to mean a social group characterised by face to
face relationship, mutual aid and companionship. C o o l e y s a ys , “ By primary group, I
mean those characterised by intimate face to face associati on and co-opration.they
are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing
the social nature and ideals of the individual…perhaps the simplest way of
describing the wholeness is by saying that it is a ‘we’, it involves the s ort of
sympathy and mutual identification for which ‘we’ is the natural expression . one
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lives in the feeling of the whole and finds the chief aim of his will in that feeling”.
Primary groups are universal groups functioning in all stages of cultural development.
Primary groups socialize the individuals. Examples for primary groups: Family,
neighborhood, children’s play group, peer groupetc.
Chief Characteristics of Primary Groups
1.
Dominance of face-to-face relations: Primary groups are characterised by close
and intimate relationships among the members. There exists a face-to-face relationship.
In primary groups every one knows every one else; one’s name and fame, one’s status,
wealth, occupation, level of education etc. Close
contact between them increases intimacy among the members. Face to face relations are
commonly observed in small groups like family, neighbourhood etc.
2. The relationship is personal: In the primary groups the interest of each is centred in
others as persons. The relationship disappears if the particular person disappears from it.
The relationship is non transferable and irreplaceable. The relationship between the
husband and wife is such that no third person can replace any one of them.
3. The Relationship is Spontaneous: A purely primary relationship is voluntary. It is
not planned. It is not based on any contract. Relationships develop between naturally. The
relationships that develop between the mother and child, husband and wife are purely
voluntary and spontaneous.
4.
Small size: Primary Groups are smaller in size. Effective participation of the
members is possible only when the group is of a small size. The character of the group
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tends to change with the size. The increase in the size of the group will have negative effect
on the intimacy of the members.
5. Physical Proximity or nearness: Face to face relations can be found only when
members reside in a more or less permanently. Seeing and talking with each other
facilitates exchange of ideas, opinions and sentiments. Physical proximity provides an
opportunity for the very development of primary groups.
6. Stability of the group: A primary group is relatively a permanent group. Social ties
deepen in time.
7. Similarity of background: The members of a primary group must have more or less
similar background. Each must have to some thing to contribute, to give as well as to
take.
8. Limited self interest: Members of the primary group subordinate their personal
interest to the interests of the group. The common interest of the group is strong enough
to control individual interest. The commonness of interests provides mental pleasure
and contentment to the members.
9. Communication: Communication in the case of primary group like family or
children’s play group, for example is very quick and effective. Direct face to face
contact helps easy communication between the members.
10.Direct Cooperation: Direct coo peration characterizes primary group. Members
work directly and in cooperation with each other to achieve their common interest. Work
is essentially ‘a mode of sharing a common experience’. The group is a unity in the
performance of a function.
Topic 2 (c) : Secondary groups
Meaning and definition of secondary groups:
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An understanding of the modern industrial society requires an understanding of the
secondary groups. The secondary groups are almost opposite to primary groups. The social
groups other than those of primary. Groups may be termed as secondary groups. MacIver
and Page refer to them as “great associations”. They are of the opinion that secondary
groups have become almost inevitable today. their appearance is mainly due to the
growing cultural complexity.
Ogburn and Nimkoff say that “the ‘groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy’
can be called secondary groups”.
Frank D Watson writes, ‘the secondary groups is larger and more formal, is specialized
and direct in its contacts and relies more for unity and continuance upon the stability of
its social organisation…”.
CharacteristicsoftheSecondaryGroups:
1.Dominance of secondary relations: Secondary groups are characterised by indirect,
impersonal, contractual and non-inclusive relations. Relations are indirect because
secondary groups are bigger in size and the members may not stay together. Relations
are contractual in the sense; they are oriented towards certain interests and desires.
2.Largeness of the size: Secondary groups are relatively larger. City, nation, political
parties ,trade unions, corporations are bigger in size. They may have thousands and lakhs
of members. There may not be any limit to the membership in the case of some
secondary groups.
3.
Membership: Membership in the case of secondary groups is voluntary. For
example, they are at liberty to join political parties, international associations like the
rotary club, lion club, and business corporations and so on. However, there are some
secondary groups like the state whose membership is almost involuntary.
4.No physical Basis: Secondary groups are not characterised by physical proximity.
Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. There are some secondary
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groups like Rotary Club and the Lion Club which are almost international in character.
The members of such groups are scattered over a vast area.
5. Specific Ends or Interests: Secondary groups are formed for the realisation of some
specific interests or
ends. They are called ‘special interest groups’. Members are
interested in the group because they have specific ends to aimat.
6. Indirect Communication: Contacts and communications in the case of secondary
groups are almost indirect. Impersonal nature of social relationships in secondary groups
is both the cause and effect to find direct communication.
7. Nature of social control: Informal means of social control are less effective in
regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary. Formal means of
social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc are made use of to control the
behaviour of members.
8. Group Structure: The secondary group has a formal structure.
Secondary groups are mostly organized groups. Different statuses and roles that the
members assume are specified. Distinctions based on caste, colour, region or religion,
class, language etc. are less rigid and the greater tolerance toward other people and
groups.
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Difference between primary and secondary groups:
Primary group
Secondarygroup
Groups which are characterized by
Group which provides experience
“face to face” relations, mutual aid and
lacking in intimacy are secondary
companionship are primary groups’
groups. Ex: political parties, trade
.ex. family, neighborhood, community,
union, religious association, the
children’s
play
group,
local
state, city, corporation, factory,
rotary club etc
brotherhood.
social relations are ‘face to face’, direct Social relations are contractual,
intimate, personal.
specialized,
and
economic
in
character
primary groups are smaller. They are
Secondary groups are relatively
localized or limited to a definite area.
bigger in size. They are not
necessarily restricted to a small
area
groups are confined to a small
Groups are not characterized by a
geographic area
physical area.
Since
members
stay
together
Since members are spread over a
communication is not only direct but
vast area direct communication is
also quick and effective.
difficult. It is mostly indirect in
nature
Interests of the members are not specific but
Interest of the members are more
general. Ever one is interested
specific. hence groups are often called
In the welfare of every one else.
special interest groups ‘
Cooperation is direct. Members work
Cooperation is mostly indirect.
together, play together, enjoy together
Cooperation is an intended act to
and in times of crisis struggle together.
serve a particular need. It is
Cooperation
limited to that purpose only.
is
natural
and
spontaneous.
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Topic 2(d) Reference Groups:
Introduction:
The concept of reference group became very popular in 1940s at the hand of Herbert Hyman, a
noted social psychologist.in his explanation of the phenomenon of reference group ,he said that it
is not necessary for an individual to identify himself only to the group to which he belongs.
Many a times ,it also happens ,an individual tends to identify himself even with the group to
which he does not belong. That is the process of identifying oneself with a non-membership group.
It is this group which we identify ourselves that is known as reference group. In sociological
literature the term reference group was first introduced by M.Muuzaffer Sheriff in his book “An
Outline of Social Psychology”. He used the term in contrast to the term
‘membership group’. For him ,membership group is the group to which a person belongs, while
reference group refers to a group that affects his behaviour. Later on various sociologists
deliberated on this concept .R.K.Merton was the leading figure among such sociologists who
elaborately expounded the concept of reference groups.
Definitions of Reference group:
1. According to Merton, “reference groups are those which are referring points of the
individual, towards which he is oriented and which influences his opinion, tendency and
behaviour”.
2. According to M.M .Sharif , “reference group is a group that affects the behaviour of a
person”.
3. According to Horton and Hunt, “A reference group is any group to which we refer when
making judgments-any group whose value –judgments become our value-judgments .It is a
model for one’s ideas and conduct norms…”
4. According to Francis Abraham, “A reference is group which a person uses to shape his
own values, beliefs ,attitudes, and behaviour”.
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Conditions under which a social group becomes may become a Reference group:
H.M Johnson has mentioned four circumstances under which a group may become a
reference group for the members of a particular social group.
i) When some or all members of a particular group aspire to membership in the reference
group. Example, the ambitious upper middle class people are always interested in joining the
ranks of upper class people.
ii) When the members of particular group struggle to imitate the members of reference group
,or try to make their group just like the reference group at least in some respect.
iii) When the members of a particular group derive some satisfaction from being distinctive
or unlike the members of reference group in some aspect.
iv) When the members of a particular group consider the reference group or its members as a
standard for comparison.
Merton’s Classification of Reference Group:
R.K.Merton says, ‘reference groups are of two kinds viz; positive reference group and negative
reference group’.
a) Positive Reference group is that which the individual likes and takes seriously in order to
shape his behaviour and evaluate his achievements and performances. This type of reference group
involves motivated assimilation of the norms of the group or standards of the group as a basis for
self-appraisal.
b) Negative Reference group: It is the one which a person dislikes and rejects and which instead
of providing norms to follow ,provokes one to create a counter norms. It involves motivated
rejection ,i.e., not merely non-acceptance of norms but the formation of counter norms.
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Topic 3 (a): Roles and Status
As you can imagine, people employ many types of behaviors in day-to-day life.Roles are
patterns of behavior that we recognize in each other that are representative of a person’s
social status. Currently, while reading this text, you are playing the role of a student. However,
you also play other roles in your
life, such as “daughter,” “neighbor,” or “employee.” These various roles are each
associated with a different status.
Roles
Meaning of Role:
According to John J. Macionis, ‘Role is the behaviour expected of someone who holds a
particular status’. Young and Mack say role is the function of a status. Horton and Hunt
describe role as the “expected behaviour of one who holds a certain status”.
Nature of Role:
1.
Every member of a group or society is bound to play certain role. It means role playing
is obligatory for all.
2.
Some social roles are shared by great many people.
3.
Some roles are enacted by only one or a few people in a society, viz; role of Prime
minister or of Chief Minister etc.
4.
Some roles may be assumed voluntarily. The assumption of some roles is
involuntary, e.g., gender roles are enacted to people involuntary in accordance with their
gender
General description of Role:
Roles, like statuses, are also central to social interaction and social structure. The two concepts of
status and role go hand in hand. A role is a behavior expected of someone in a particular status.
Using the status of the doctor from the examples above, a number of role expectations can be
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identified. Doctors should come to work. They should examine patients competently and discuss
their concerns. They should prescribe medicine lawfully. All of these examples illustrate how we
expect doctors to act. These roles together illustrate a role set, all of the roles that go with a
single status. The roles for different statuses the person holds may conflict with each other. This
is known as role conflict. Our doctor, who is also a mother, may find it difficult to devote the
long work hours required of her job and concurrently fulfill the expectations of being a parent.
Long work hours may make attending her child’s school plays or teacher conferences difficult.
Role strain occurs when two or more roles associated with a single status are in conflict. This
requires balancing expectations. For example, the doctor may find it difficult to give patients all
the time she would like to during appointments while holding to her appointment schedule and
seeing the number of patients she must see daily to meet the financial obligations of the clinic. .
One person can be associated with a multitude of roles and statuses. Even a single status such as
“student” has a complex role-set, or array of roles, attached to it .If too much is required of a
single role, individuals can experience role strain. Consider the duties of a parent: cooking,
cleaning, driving, problem-solving, acting as a source of moral guidance—the list goes on.
Similarly, a person can experience role conflict when one or more roles are contradictory. A
parent who also has a full-time career can experience role conflict on a daily basis. When there is
a deadline at the office but a sick child needs to be picked up from school, which comes first?
When you are working toward a promotion but your children want you to come to their school
play, which do you choose? Being a college student can conflict with being an employee, being
an athlete, or even being a friend. Our roles in life have a great effect on our decisions and who
we become.
Status
Meaning of status:
According to Horton and Hunt , “Status is the rank or position of a person in a group, or of
a group in relation to other group”. For Ralf Linton, status is a place in a particular system
,which a certain individual occupies at a particular time. According to kingley Davis ,
‘status is a position in the general institutional system, recognized and supported by entire
society’.
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Nature of status:
1.
Status is identified by external symbols.
2.
Every status has its own rights ,duties and obligations.
3.
Social statuses are governed by norms.
4.
One individual may have several statuses.
5.
Statuses differ with their degree of importance and have a hierarchical distribution.
General description on Status:
Status is central to social interaction and social structure. To sociologists, statuses are
established social positions. Unlike popular usage of the term, having “status” in sociological
terms does not equate to prestige. To sociologists, everyone has status, although some do have
higher status than others as judged by society. The different statuses in a medical clinic, for
example, include physician, nurse, lab technicians, janitorial staff, and patient. In this setting,
the relationships between these positions are socially defined, with the doctor having the
greatest power and prestige.
Statuses are obtained in different ways. They can be either achieved or ascribed. Achieved
statuses are those positions acquired through personal effort. Being a law school student,
architect, parent, square dancer, or shoplifter are all achieved statuses. Individuals had to do
something to become each of these things. Ascribed statuses are positions involuntarily
acquired through birth. Being a female, a Caucasian, a toddler, a son, a brother, or a princess are
all ascribed statuses. Some achieved statuses may depend at least to some extent on ascribed
statuses. For example, because of their sex, women are not currently allowed to achieve positions
as submariners in the U.S. navy.
Collectively, all the statuses a person holds at once comprise his or her status set. Each of the
people in the clinic holds a number of different statuses at the same time. The doctor may also be
a daughter, wife, mother, member of the garden club, and civic-league president. This status set
changes frequently over a person’s lifetime. Continuing with the doctor as an example, her status
set changed when she moved from being a medical student to a doctor. It changed when she
married and would change again if she were to divorce or be widowed. She could remove or add
statuses from her set by resigning from the civic league or running for political office.
Some statuses in a status set are more socially important and influential than others. A very
influential status may become a master status, a status that becomes more socially important
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than all other statuses. A master status may attach to either positive or negative statuses. The doctor
in our example may be defined by her occupation. Whatever else she is, she is first a doctor to
those she meets in social settings. Other people may respond to her with the prestige ac- corded
that position. If the doctor were to be convicted of a serious crime such as insurance fraud or
selling prescription narcotics, she might find that her master status becomes that of a criminal.
Topic 3 (b): Norms and Values
Norms:
Meaning and Definitions:
The normative component of culture consists of definition of what ought to be included ;
like values and specific rules of conduct (norms) by which human behavior is guided and
regulated. Many parts of culture contain both cognitive and normative components. An
ideology, for example, is a system of beliefs about the social world that is strongly rooted
in a set of values and interests. The leading ideologies of our time (democracy,
capitalism, communism, socialism which directly or indirectly shape much human
behaviour in the world) are large systems of ideas that define both what is or exists, and
what ought to be. They offer an analysis of how societies function and a prescription for
change.
The term social norm has been used first by M.M.Sharif in his book ‘The Psychology of
Social Norms in 1936 to describe common standards or ideas which guide members’
responses in all established groups. Norms are the rules of behaviour of that are agreed
upon and shared within a culture and that prescribe limits of acceptable behavior. They
refine “Normal” expected behaviour and help people all live predictability in their lives.
Norms represent “standardized generalization”. They are the blue prints for behaviour.
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Norms are derived from our societal values. Norms constitute the shared rules or expectations
specifying appropriate behaviors in various situations. We need norms to maintain a stable social
order. They both direct and prohibit behavior. Norms tell us what we should do (wait our turn,
pay bills on time, show respect for our elders, etc.); they also tell us what we should not do (hit
our spouse, run red lights, etc.). Norms are enforced through a process of internalization. They
become part of who we are as individuals and as a culture. However, external social enforcement
in the form of both positive and negative sanctions is also critical. Norms vary over time.
Women wearing trousers, especially in public areas or to work, is a relatively recent occurrence.
Similarly, recent bans on smoking in many public places signify shifting norms regarding
smoking.
Some important definitions of Norms:
1. According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, “a norm is a shared expectation of a
behaviour that connotes what is considered culturally desirable and appropriate”.
2. According to M.Haralambos , “a norm is a specific guide to action acceptable and
appropriate behaviour in particular situation”.
3. According to Young and Mack , “norms refer to the group shared expectations”.
Characteristics of Norms:
1. Social norms are universal: Norms are the very basis of the social order .No society can
function smoothly in the absence of norms. That is why norms have universal
appearance.
2. Norms are related to factual order: In every society there are two basic types of orders
.one is normative order –the one that tell how individual should or ought to behave and
another is factual order that is related to actual behaviour of the person. It is through
normative order that society regulates the behaviour of its members.
3. Norms incorporate value judgements: Norms are based on values. As standardized
generalization , they are concepts which have been evaluated by the group and they
incorporate value judgements. It is in terms of norms that we judge whether some action
is right or wrong and good or bad.
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4. Norms vary with sanctions: Sanctions and norms go hand in hand . Norms are the behaviour
standards while as sanctions are the rewards or punishments used to enforce norms in
society. In addition to being punished for violation of norms, people tend to be rewarded
for proper observance of them.
Functions of norms:
1. Norms direct, regulate and control human behaviour .
2. They help in satisfying the social needs.
3. They help in establishing social order.
4. They act as measuring scale to evaluate the social behaviour.
5. They act as ideals and objectives in certain situations, and help in predicting behaviour.
Types of Norms:
1.Ideal Norms and Real Norms
Ideal norms are expectations of what people should do under perfect conditions. These
are the norms we first teach our children. They tend to be
simple, making few
distinctions and allowing for no exceptions. In reality, however, nothing about human
beings is ever that dependable. Real norms are norms that are expressed with qualifications
and allowances for difference in individual behavior. They specify how people actually
behave. They reflect the fact that a person’s behaviour is guided by norms as well as
unique situations.
2.Prescriptive and Proscriptive Norms:
A prescriptive norm is positive in the form and spells out forms of behavious which role-players
are expected to follow. While as proscriptive norm is the one which directs the role-player to
avoid or abstain from certain type of activity.
3. Formal and Informal Norms:
Formal norms are generally written down and involve strict rules for punishment of violators.
Laws are example of formal norms. While as informal norms are generally understood but are
not precisely recorded. Standard of proper dress is a common example of informal norm.
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Values:
Values, culturally defined ideas about what is important, are central to culture. Values delineate
how a culture should be. For example; in the United States, sociologists have identified cultural
values including success, hard work, freedom, equality, democracy, individualism, and progress.
Of course, not everyone in a culture shares identical values. They also do not share them equally.
Some people or groups hold more tightly to certain values while rejecting others.
Values area culture’s general orientation toward life, its notion s of what is desirable and
undesirable. Values can also be understood by looking at patterns of behavior. For example,
sociologists have frequently noted the different levels of violence in the northern and southern
United States. T h e r e f o r e , s o c i o l o g i s t s u s e t h i s t e r m i n a m o r e p r e c i s e s e n s e t o
m e a n “ t h e g e n e r a l i z e d e n d w h i c h h a s t h e c o n n o t a t i o n s o f r ightness , goodness or
inherent desirability”.
Some important definitions of Values:
1. According to Haralambos , “ a value is a belief that something is good and desirable”
2. According to R.K.Mukherjee, “values are socially approved desires and goals that are
internalized through the process of conditioning ,learning or socialization and that
become subjective prefrences ,standards and aspirations”.
3. According to Young and Mack , “Values are assumptions ,largely unconscious ,of what is
right and important”.
Characteristics of values:
1. Values provide goals or ends for the members to aim for.
2. They provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interaction.They hold society
together,because they are shared in common.
3. They bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities.
4. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between different sets of rules.
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Types of Values:
The classification of Values can be given as follows:
1.Individual Values: these the values which are related to the human personality such as
honesty,loyalty,and honour.
2.Collective Values: These are connected with solidarity of community or collective norms of
equality ,justice and sociableness.
3.Intrinsic Values :these values are related to goals of life. They are sometimes known as
ultimate and transcendent values. In hierarchy of values they occupy the highest place and
superiority to all other values of life.
4.Instrumental Values: these values are means to achieve goals (intrinsic values) of life.
They are also known as incidental or proximate values.
Topic 3 (C) Folkways and Mores
Introduction:
The social norm, or simply, "norm," is arguably the most important concept in sociology.
Sociologists believe that norms govern our lives by giving us implicit and explicit guidance on
what to think and believe, how to behave, and how to interact with others. We learn norms in a
variety of settings and from various actors, including our families, from teachers and peers in
school, through the media, and simply by interacting with others as we go about our daily business.
There are four key types of norms, with differing levels of scope and reach, significance
and importance, and methods of enforcement and sanctioning of violations. These are, in order of
significance, folkways, mores, taboos, and laws.
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Folkways:
Early American sociologist William Graham Sumner was the first to write about these distinctions.
According to Sumner, and how sociologists understand this term today, folkways are norms that
stem from and organize casual interaction, and that emerge out of repetition and routines. We
engage in them to satisfy our daily needs, and they are most often unconscious in operation, though
quite useful to the ordered functioning of society. For example, the practice of waiting in (or on)
line in many societies is an example of a folkway. This practice creates order in the process of
buying things or receiving services, which smooths and expedites the tasks of our daily lives.
Other examples include the concept of appropriate dress dependent on setting, raising one's hand
to take a turn speaking in a group, or the practice of "civil inattention"--when we politely ignore
others around us in public settings. Folkways mark the distinction between rude and polite
behavior, so they exert a form of social pressure on us to act and interact in certain ways, but
they do not have moral significance, and there are rarely serious consequences or sanctions for
violating one.
Mores:
Mores are more strict in folkways, as they determine what is considered moral and ethical
behavior; they structure the difference between right and wrong. People feel strongly about
mores, and violating them typically results in disapproval or ostracizing. As such, mores exact a
greater coercive force in shaping our values, beliefs, behavior, and interactions than do
folkways.Religious doctrines are an example of mores that govern social behavior. For example,
many religions have prohibitions on cohabitating with a romantic partner before marriage. So, if a
young adult from a strict religious family moves in with her boyfriend, her family, friends, and
congregation are likely to view her behavior as amoral. They might sanction her behavior by
scolding her, threatening punishment in the afterlife, or by shunning her from their homes and
the church. These actions are meant to indicate that her behavior is amoral and unacceptable, and
are designed to make her changer her behavior to align with the violated more.
The belief that forms of discrimination and oppression, like racism and sexism, are unethical is
another example of an important more in many societies today.
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Summary:
1. Folkways are habits of individuals or of a group of people which have been accepted and
followed by its members and eventually became accepted as a way of life while mores are moral
customs and traditions that are shared by a group of people that makes up a society.
2. Folkways are informal social conventions with no moral significance while mores are social
conventions that are morally significant.
3. Both terms were first used during the early 1900s. While the word “mores” comes from Latin,
the word “folkways” was introduced by American sociologist William Graham Sumner.
4. Both folkways and mores were developed from the people’s habitual actions an d not from
society’s laws; folkways in a way are a certain type of mores.
5. While both folkways and mores instruct people on how they should act, mores, which
represent the values of a group, are stricter while folkways are the feelings, thinking, and actions
of a group and are less strict.
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Unit 4:
Social Processes
Socialization
 Social Change
 Social Control
 Social Conflict

Topic 1: Socialisation
Meaning of socialization:
Every society prescribes its own ways and means of giving social training to its new born
members so that they may develop their own personality. This social training is called
‘socialization’. The process of socialization is conditioned by culture. Since every society has its
own culture the ways of the process of socialization also differ from society to society. The human
child comes in to the word as biological organism with animal needs. He is gradually molded in the
society into a social being and learns social ways of acting and feeling. This process of moulding
and shaping the personality of the human infant is called ‘socialization’
Thus, socialization means the process whereby an individual becomes a functioning
member of the society. The individual becomes socialized by learning the rules and practice of
social groups. By the process the individual develops a personality of its own. Socialization is often
referred to as the ‘transmission of cultural’, the process whereby men learn the rules and
practice of social groups.
Why Socialization Matters
Socialization is critical both to individuals and to the societies in which they live. It
illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds are. First, it is
1
through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself. If new generations
of a society don’t learn its way of life, it ceases to exist. Whatever is distinctive about a
culture must be transmitted to those who join it in order for a society to survive. For example
in any modern society for democratic culture to continue, children must learn about cultural
values related to democracy: they have to learn the norms of voting, as well as how to use
material objects such as voting machines. Thus, all sociologists recognize the importance of
socialization for healthy individual and societal development. But how do scholars working
in the three major theoretical paradigms approach this topic? Structural functionalists would
say that socialization is essential to society, both because it trains members to operate
successfully within it and because it perpetuates culture by transmitting it to new generations.
Without socialization, a society’s culture would perish as members died off. A conflict
theorist might argue that socialization reproduces inequality from generation to generation by
conveying different expectations and norms to those with different social characteristics. For
example, individuals are socialized differently by gender, social class, and race. As in the
illustration of Chris Langan, this creates different (unequal) opportunities. An interactionist
studying socialization is concerned with face-to-face exchanges and symbolic
communication. For example, dressing baby boys in blue and baby girls in pink is one small
way that messages are conveyed about differences in gender roles.
Definition
(i) W.F .Ogburn: “socialization is the process by which the individual learns to conform to the
norms of the group”.
(ii) Peter Worsley explains socialization as the process of “transmission of culture the
process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups”.
(iii) Anthony Giddens, “Socialization is process by which the helpless infant gradually becomes
self aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of culture into which he or she is born.”
(iv)Anderson and Parker, “Socialization is a learning process of development
attitudes and traits that differentiate individual from one another.”
of
habits,
(v) Lundberg, “Socialization is a process of interaction where the individual learns habits, skills,
beliefs and standard of judgments which are necessary for effective participation at social groups and
communities.”
From the above , it can be concluded that socialization provides children the experience of living and
interacting with each other ,which in turn helps the individual to grow as a human being or it would
be difficult to differentiate them with animals. Children learn by imitating and observing, therefore
socialization is concerned to be a two way process which involves observation and response. Every
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new born infant is considered to be a bundle of flesh that needs to be moulded in a specific way to be
an accepted member. As the child grows, s/he becomes disciplined and matured. In this way socialization
is a lifelong process.
Stages of socialization
Socialization is a gradual process of learning. The new born child is not a taught all the things about
social life at once. It proceeds from simplicity to complexity. Socialization consists of four stages
from infancy to adulthood. They are – (1) the oral stage, (2) the anal stage, (3) the oedipal stage,
and (4) adolescence.
1. The First Stage – The Oral Stage. This stage begins with the birth of the child and continues
up to the completion of one year. For everything the child cries a great deal. By means of
crying the child establishes its oral dependency. The child here develops some definite
expectations about the feeding time. The child also learns to give signals for his felt needs. In
this stage the child is involved in himself and his mother.
2. The Second Stage – The Anal Stage. The second stage normally begins soon after the first
year and is completed during the third year “toilet training” is the main focus of new concern.
The child is taught to do some tasks such as toileting, keeping clothes clean etc. The child in
this stage internalizes two separate roles – his own role and that of his mother. The child
receives ‘care’ and also ‘love’ from the mother and learns to give love in return.
The child is enabled to distinguish between correct and incorrect actions. The correct actions are
rewarded and the incorrect action is not rewarded but punished. In this second stage the socializing
agent, that is, the mother plays the dual role. She participates in the interaction system with the child
in a limited context and she also participates in the larger system that is the family.
3. The Third Stage – The Oedipal Stage. This stage mostly starts from the fourth year of the
child and extends up to puberty (the age of 12 or 13 years). It is in this stage the child
become the member of the family as a whole. It is here the child has to identify himself with
the social role ascribed to him on the basis of his sex.
According to Freud, the body
develops the ‘Oedipus complex” – the feeling of jealousy towards father and love towards
mother. In the same way, the girl develops the ‘Electra Complex’ – the feeling of jealousy
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towards the mother and love towards the father. In this stage sufficient social pressures are
brought on the child to identify with the right sex. Boys begin with rewarded, for behaving like
boys and girls are rewarded for acting like girls.
4. The Fourth Stage – The Stage of Adolescence. The fourth stage starts with the period of
adolescence. Due to the physiological and the psychological changes that take place within
the individual this stage assumes importance. During this stage the boys and girls try to
become free from parental control. At the same time they cannot completely escape from
their dependence on their parents. Hence they may experience a kind of strain or
conflict in themselves.
THE AGENCIES OF SOCIALISATION
Personalities do not come ready-made. They are moulded or shaped through the process of
socialisation. The process of socialisation is operative not only in childhood but throughout life.
It is a process which begins at birth and continues till the death of the individual. It is an endless
process. From the societal point of view, the child is valued more for ‘what he will be’ than
for
‘what he is’ .socialisation helps the child to become a useful member of the society. The
following
are the agencies that have been established by culture which socialize the new born
child.
i)
Family and parents. The process of socialisation begins for every one of us in the
family. Here, the parental and particularly the maternal influence on the child is very great. The
intimate relationship between the mother and the child has great impact on shaping of child’s
abilities and capacities. The parents are the first person to introduce to the child the culture of
his group. The child receives additional communications from his older siblings, I.e. brothers
and sisters, who have gone through the same process – with certain differences due to birth
order and to the number and sex of the siblings.
ii)
Peer or age mates. ‘Peer groups’ means those group made up of the contemporaries of
the child, his associates in school, in playground and in street. He learns from these children,
facts and facet of culture that have they have previously learnt at different times from their
parents. The members of peer group have other group sources of information about the culture –
their peers in still other peer groups – and thus the acquisition of culture goes on.
It is true
that the ‘peer culture’ becomes more important and effective than be ‘parental culture’ in the
adolescent years of the child.
iii)
T h e S c h o o l / Teacher: The teachers also play their role in socialisation when the
child enters the school. It is in the school that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired.
It is not only the formal knowledge of the culture that is transmitted there but most of its
premises as well- its ethical sentiments, its political attitudes, its custom and taboos. Wherever
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they are, and at whatever age, the communications they receive from their teachers help to
socialize them and to make them finally mature members of their societies.
iv)
Workplace :
As the individual grows into an adult person, work becomes part of life. Occupation brings about
reality in front of the person as the individual earns for survival to fulfill his ambition. Occupational
socialization deals with the people as well as with the field. Personal goals and basic needs are
fulfilled. The individual learns to cooperate, adjust with others at the work place. Discipline continues
and if s/he violates the rules it may cost the loss of job.
iv) Literature and Mass Media of Communication. There is another source of socialisation.
This is, of course, found only in literate societies and that is the literature. The civilization that we
share is constructed of words or literature. The media of mass communication give us their
messages. These messages too contain in capsule from, the premises of our culture, its attitudes and
ideologies.
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Topic 2: Social Change
INTRODUCTION
People long for stability, security through continuity. However, no society remains static or stable.
Society is constantly changing in its structure & function. This change in the society is inevitable. It is a
continuous process. Some changes are willingly accepted by the society, some are not. Speed of change
also varies from society to society. Some societies experience speedy change, some take long period.
Social scientists are trying to understand the process of social change, the direction of social change &
various factors that bring this social change. The word change refers to anything that is done differently. It
does not necessarily mean the social change, because not all the changes can be regarded as social
changes.
MEANING & DEFINITION
If we say that, society is a complex network of relationship then social change would mean change in social
relationship. Different sociologists have tried to explain social change by defining it in different ways.
Some important definitions of social change are as under:
According to MacIver and Page, “social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes,
to change in the manmade conditions of life,to change in the attitudes and beliefs of men , and to the
changes that go beyond the human control to the biological and the physical nature of things”.
According to M.E.Jones, “social change is a term used to describe variations in ,or modificati ons of ,any
aspect of social processes, social patterns ,social interaction or social organisation”.
According to T. B. Bottmore, “social change refers to change occurring in social structure or in institution
or in the relationship between the institutions.”
According to Kinsley Davis, “social change is change which occurs in the social organization i.e.
structure & function of society.”
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Social change may be defined as the process in which is discernible significant alteration in the structure
& functioning of a particular social system.
Thus, social change is a universal phenomenon. It is a process that also implies continuity. Social change
is thus inevitable & a demand of time.
FACTORS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
For social change, not one cause may be effective. There may be many factors, which set the process in
motion. Although social causation is always a multiple causation, some sociologists have emphasized on
factor over another, we would take into account all the factors, though some consider social &
cultural factors to be most predominant.
1.
Physical Factors – Changes in the physical environment are not rapid, but the occasional changes
in the environment bring total changes in human social lives. E.g. ; Earthquake, storms, heavy rainfall.
These changes force people to migrate to new areas hence people have to change themselves according to
that society. This brings out change I culture, way of clothing, manners etc.
2.
Biological Factors - Biological factors too have some indirect influence upon social change.
Among the biological factors is the qualitative aspect of the population related to heredity. The qualitative
aspect of population is based upon powerful & great men & their birth is dependent largely upon heredity
& mutation. Hence, biological factors play a part in social change to that extent. In addition to this, the
biological principals of natural selection & struggle for survival are constantly producing alterations in
society.
3.
Technological Factors – Human beings are never satisfied. In the process of satisfying his wants,
man devised new means & created new needs. To satisfy his new needs man invented new techniques to
use natural resources. This technological factor brought out severe changes in the society.
Technological factors have immense influence in social change. Technology changes society
by
changing
our environments to which we in turn adopt. This change is usually in the material
environment & the adjustment we make to the changes often modifies customs & social institutions. In
this way, the increase in new machines & methods due to new discoveries has had a very great influence
upon social institutions. In the modern age, technological factors are among the predominant causes of
social change.
4.
Economic Factors – Karl Marx has given economic interpretation of social changes. With the
changes in the economic system, the entire society changes in its structure & functioning. Economic
conditions in countries do affect the health, mortality, marriages, divorce rate, suicide, crime etc. It can
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also bring social unrest & revolution & war. Of course, not all the social changes are necessarily caused
by economic conditions. Changes have also occurred due to educational molding in people’s attitudes
etc.
5.
Cultural Factors – The main cause of social change is the cultural factors. Changes in the culture
are accompanied by social change. Changes & variations in culture inevitably influence social relationships.
Culture gives speed & direction to social change & determines the limits beyond which social changes
cannot occur. Max Weber, has proved this hypothesis by a comparative study of religious
& economic institution.
6.
Environmental Factors – The cerographists have emphasized the impact of geographical
environment upon human society Huntington has gone so far as to assert that an alteration in the climate
is the sole cause of the evolution & devolution of civilizations & cultures Even if these claims of the
cerographists are to be discarded, it cannot be denied that floods, earthquakes, excessive rain,
drought, change of season etc. have significant effect upon social relationships & these are
modified by such natural occurrences.
7.
Psychological Factors – Most sociologists regard psychological factors as important elements in
social change. The cause of social change is the psychology of man himself. Man is by nature a lover of
change. He is always trying to discover new things in every sphere in life & is always anxious for novel
experience. As a result of this tendency, the mores, traditions, customs etc. Of every human society are
perpetually undergoing change. The form of social relationships is constantly changing in the process of
interactions between the tendencies of moving towards the new while preserving the old . New customs &
methods replace the old traditional customs while old traditions that demand change with time adapts to
changing traditions.
8.
Other Factors – In addition to the above mentioned factors, another factor of social change in the
appearance of new opinions & thoughts. Egg :- Changes in the attitudes towards dowry, caste system,
female education etc. have resulted in widespread social variations & modifications. In fact a majority of
the social revolutions take place as a result of the evolution of new ways of thinking. War, thoughts of
great thinkers i.e.- Mahatma Gandhi, Karl Marx etc. influence the population & has socio-economic
impact causing social change.
8
SOME IMPORTANT THEORIES OF SOCIAL
CHANGE
The theories of social change are of four types. Some show the existence of more or less general &
irreversible trends. Second type takes the form of conditional & structural laws. The third type
deals with the forms of change & the fourth type deals with causes or factors of change.
1) Evolutionary theory of
change
The concept of evolution implies order, change & composition of given populations
by such processes as mutation & natural selection. Often the analogy between the development of
an organism & the development of human society is made or implied, hence the concept of
social evolution has been used to refer to certain definite stages through which all societies were
believed to pass, in the passage from a simple to a more complex form.
Classical evolutionary theory, was based on the assumptions that the history of human
societies represented the history of their development from a simple, hardly differentiated, i.e.
‘backward’ state to more complex i.e.- ‘advanced’ state. In
the 19th
& early 20th c conjectures about unilateral societal development characterized the study of
social evolution.
Theorists taking the evolutionary approach differed in many particulars. August Comte [17981857]
viewed society as passing through three main
epoch:1. The theological & military epoch in which supernatural preoccupations dominate the culture
&
military conquest slavery are the major
social goals.
2. The metaphysical & juridical epoch which is a transitional epoch between the first & the
third &
3.
The scientific & industrial epoch in which positivism displaces religious speculation &
peaceful economic production displaces war making as the dominant aim of social organization.
Sir Henry Maine viewed the progress of civilization as a series of stages between early forms of
social order based on patriarchy & status & later forms based on freedom & contract.
Herbert Spencer, in his principles of sociology, felt that in social life there was a change from
simple to complex forms from the homogenous to the heterogeneous & that there was with
society integration of the ‘whole’ & a differentiation of the parts.
E. B. Taylor, in his great work, primitive culture, 1871, linked his observations covering a wide
range of different societies to the evolutionary framework. In particular, be sought to establish
a sequential development of religious forms: a concern which also motivated Sir James Frazer in
the Golden Baugh : A study in Comparative Religion & Emile Durkheim in his, les elementariness
de la vie religious, 1912, Karl Marx in Das Capital 1848, put forward a materialist variant of
evolutionary theory when they would be transition from capitalist control to rule by the proletariat
similar to the earlier development whereby capitalism itself replaced feudalism.
The evolutionary doctrine provided a broad general framework through which the
whole progress of human society could be conceptualized. The neo-evolutionary theory of
society focused more on the apparent variation of change patterns with respect to certain social
groups, regions of organization as their major focus of analysis while the classical evolutionary
theory dealt with the mankind, civilization or some institutional ideal type of society.
2) The Functionalist Theory of
Change
The functionalists presented the best known theoretical approach that views exogenous forces
as the source of major changes in society. The early functionalists were involved in by the variety
of socio- cultural phenomena & by the uniformity of certain characteristics of the various societies.
This led them to the idea that cultural manifestations & social institution were closely related to
the satisfaction of basic human needs. Egg :- Theories of Radcliffe Brown & Malinowski, Needs
were largely considered to be constant only the societal organization to meet the needs are
variable. Social change hence, ban be understood as change of the institutional arrangements
available to take care of those needs or as change of the manifest & latent functions of these
institutions. Equilibrium was considered as the most important assumption with which the
functionalists view society. E.g.:- Kingsley Davis, Talcott Parsons etc. In most general terms, a
system is said to be in equilibrium when its component parts are so compatible with each other,
barring an outside disturbance, none of them will change its position or relation to the others in any
significant way. A theory of social equilibrium is a theory that seeks to uncover the general
condition for the maintenance of a society in stable equilibrium & to specify the mechanism by
which that stability is preserved or established after the occurrence of outside disturbances.
3) The Conflict Theory of
Change
Common to all conflict theoretical approaches is that they explain change in terms of
antagonism or tension producing elements that are present in the social system. The causes of
such conflicts leading to societal changes are especially sought in those elements of the social
structure which on the other band are related to the establishment & sanctioning of social norms
& on the other hand to the control & allocation of scare resources such as income, property,
prestige, influence & authority. These theories focus on processes of social life that tend to ward
instability in & conflict between parts of society or simply the actors concerned. Change is seen
as a dialectical relationship between dominant elements of society (central values, ideologies,
power relations, distribution of resources etc.) & those arrangements that compete with or oppose
the former. Karl Marx was are of the earliest exponents of conflict theory.
In Marxism, the basis of conflict is to be found in the social relations of production. Thus all
supporting social institutions support the different ‘sides’. In this conflict & the unitary concept
of a cultural & social system tend to disappear. The political & economic institutions of
capitalist society are seen as representing‘the political & economic way of bourgeoisie’ & as against
this there is reference of the ‘political economy of the working class’. So conflict between
classes in the social relations of production spills over to become a conflict in all spheres &
the social system becomes one of two conflicting classes.
Ralf Dahrendorf, on the other hand has suggested that intra- institutional conflicts occur about
authority in all institutions & that there need not necessarily be any overlapping. In particular he
argues that industrial conflict has become institutionalized i.e.- confined within a particular
institutional context. Lockwood, has drawn attention to the importance of conflict between
institutional sub systems Egg ;- there is no necessary harmony between industrial & educational
institutions.
RESISTANCE
CHANGE
TO
Any change is not accepted easily. As we have seen unless there is mental preparation, no change
is accepted by the society. Thus, there are various factors, which hinder the social change.
1.
Inertia – People should feel the dissatisfaction with existing situation, and then only social
change can take place. However, many times people are so much used to that lethargic situation
that they do not wish to change the situation. They have no mental capacity to fight against the
situation & to change it. Such attitude is one of the obstacles in social change.
2.
Habit – Habit is developed through repeated actions for a long period of effect to break that
habit is always resisted.
3.
Custom & Tradition – People have inculcated the traditions and customs through their fore
fathers so much that any revolutionary idea to change the custom is always criticized.
4.
Vested Interest – Resistance to the change comes from such group of people who would
be threatened by that change. Any suggested change is likely to have resistance when it’s not
beneficial to the personal ambitions.
5.
Lack of Proper Knowledge – Social change is resisted by those who lack the knowledge of
a new discovery. For want of facts, misconception & misunderstandings influence attitudes of
people against any change. Illiteracy & ignorance make understanding of any technological
innovation difficult. It took generations for the Baigas of Central India to accept iron plough for
they were not prepared to hurt their mother earth with a knife. It is necessary, therefore to educate
the people before introducing any change in their native, traditional setting. Knowledge can clear
misconceptions & make people accept change readily.
6.
Desire For Stability – Any change disrupts normal routine life in which people find stability.
They are not sure that the change is going to be beneficial or harmful. They tend to be apprehensive
about it. It is the desire for stability that makes people resist change.
7.
Suspicion – When people suspect that a given change is harmful, anti-social or irreligious,
they resist it. Those who believe that taking vaccine against smallpox is to arouse the wrath of
goddess ‘Mata’ refuse to take inoculation. Superstitions, religious beliefs & prejudices often
contribute to the suspicion that illiterate, ignorant, tradition bound people entertain against any
innovation.
These are some of the obstacles in the process of acceptance of social change. However, with
education, persuasion, deliberation it is possible to prepare the people mentally to accept the change,
if it is meant for their well-being & welfare of the society at large. Attitudes of the people cannot
be changed with the stroke of a pen, by passing laws or by any other forcible, drastic
measures. When attitudes change favorably, the speed of social change is accelerated.
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Topic 3: Social Control
1.
MEANING OF SOCIAL CONTROL
The study of social control begins with the study of social order within which people interact.
Order is a state in which social life-actions and interactions –can be conducted without major
disruption. Social order means a system of people, relationships and customs operating smoothly
to accomplish the work of a society. It depends upon the expectations of others and conformity
to social norms or rules. Thus, the survival and smooth functioning of the society is possible only
when there exist in it social harmony, social solidarity and social order. Members of the society
are able to bring about social harmony or order only when they conform to certain accepted
standards of behaviour or norms. Thus, social control refers to the control of society over the
individual. E.A. Ross was the first American sociologist to deal with this concept of social
control in his famous book “ social control” published in 1901. In fact, it was he who first used
the concept of ‘social control’ in sociological discussion.
Definition of Social Control
1. E.A. Ross. “Social control refers to the “system of devices whereby society brings its
members into conformity with the accepted standards of behaviour”.
2. Karl Manheim. “Social control is the sum of those methods by which a society tries to
influence human behaviour to maintain a given order.”
3. Ogburn and Nimkoff have said that social control refers to “the patterns of pressure which a
society exert to maintain order and established rules.”
4. Perter R.Berger: “social control refers the various means used bt a society to bring its
recalcitrant members back into line”.
5. Roberts: “the term social control refers to the techniques and stratergies for regulating human
behaviour in society”.
Nature of Social Control
(i)
Social Control denotes some kind of influence. The influence may be exercised in various
ways by means of public opinion, coercion, religion.
(ii)
The influence is essentially exerted by the society or community. It may indicate the
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14
entire society‘s influence over all.
(iii) The influence is exercised for promoting the welfare of all the individuals or of the group
as a whole.
(iv)
The influence of the society has been there since times immemorial. It is an essential
condition of the human society.
(v)
The influence is universal. Where there is society there is a social control.
PURPOSES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
The purpose of ‘social control’ as the very term indicates, is to exercise control over people in an
effective manner .why the control is needed? According to Kimball Young, it is necessary “to
bring about conformity, solidarity, and continuity of a particular group or society”. The three
purpose of social control mentioned by Kimball-young –conformity, solidarity and continuity of
the group – may be described below.
1. Social Control brings about social conformity. People must be made to feel the need for
security. For the sake of security they are obliged, to accept conformity. Social Control thus
provides for conformity.
2. Social Control brings about solidarity. The second main purpose of social control is to creat in
the minds of people the feeling of identity and of solidarity. It becomes necessary for the society
to establish a reasonable balance or equilibrium between different groups and institutions.
Society does this through various means of social control.
3. Social control assures the continuity of social group or society. Societies not only struggle for
stability and solidarity but also for their own survival or continuity.
TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Society makes use of various means of social control depending upon the time and social
situation for the realisation of its purposes.
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15
Formal and Informal Control
Social Control can be classified into two major types on the basis of the means of social control
that are employed.
They are: (i) formal control, and (ii) informal control.
1. Formal control. Formal control is deliberately created. Various rules are laid down to make it
specific. Formal control has become a necessity in the modern complex societies in which
interaction is mostly impersonal in nature.
2. Informal control. Informal control includes public opinion, folkways, mores, customs,
religion, morality and such other agents. These are not purposefully created. No specific
punishment would be given to the violators of informal control. Still they are more effective then
the formal control. Informal control is more effective in primary social groups such as family,
neighourhood, where interaction takes place on a personal basis. Whenever the group or the
society become larger ( in terms of population) and more complex, the informal devices of
control become less effective
AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Society or group maintains social control by creating its own agencies which may enforce formal
or informal control.
1. Law. : Law is the most powerful moral means of social control in the modern society
2. Education. Education may be defined as a process whereby the social heritage of a group is
passed on from one generation to another. It is in this sense ,Durkheim conceived of education as “
the socialisation of the younger generation”.
3. Public Opinion. Public Opinion is an important agency of social control. Mack and Young
have said, ”public opinion consists of the opinion held by a public at a certain time”. There are
various agencies for the formulation and expression of public opinion. The press radio, movies,
and legislatures are the main controlling agencies of public opinion.
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16
4. propaganda. It refers to the techniques of influencing human action by the manipulation of
representations. It is a means of influencing others, often towards a desirable end. It can
also be used to replace old beliefs and practices with the new ones.
5. Coercion. Coercion, that is, the use of physical force is one of the forms of social control
coercion refers to the use of physical force to stop or control a work or an action.
6. folkways and mores. ‘Folkways’ refer to the ways of the people. They constitute an
important part of the social structure .they contribute to the order and stability of social relations.
Human infants learn them through their elders through socialisation.
‘Mores’ or ‘morels’ represent another category of norms. When ‘folkways’ act as regulators of
behaviour then they become ‘mores’. They are always considered as ‘right’ by the people who
share them.
7. Religion. Religion refers to man’s faith or belief in some supernatural power or force. As
Maclver and page have said, religion” implies a relationship not merely between man and man
but also between man and some higher power”.
Social control and socialization:
Functionalists argue that social order in the society is achieved partly through socializing
members into the accepted values and norms. Socialisation is the means by which values
consciousness is brought about, and this is achieved through internalisations of norms.we learn
expectations of the group ,of which we are the members,through the process of
socialisations.those who are not successfully socialized and become deviants may be controlled
by more coercive means .the various agencies of socialization like family ,neighbourhood
,community ,school,work place ,peer groups are also the agencies of social control. They
exercise regulatory influence over the behaviour of individuals.
Social control and social change:
with social change the ideology,methods,techniques and direction of social control also
changes.Many a time and at sevral places ,the negative controls instead of positive controls are
given importance and free will is crushed. Gillin and Gillin stated, “too regid social control
means repression of dynamic person or minority group in a population supplying the ideas and
actions on which social change depends”.
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17
Topic 4: Social Conflict
Introduction:
If one were to look at the major concerns in sociology, we find primarily two. The first one tends
to focus on the nature of social order, social stability, and consensus. The second deals with change,
disorder, instability and social conflict. Karl Marx was the most influential social thinker who
systematically analyzed the phenomenon of social conflict. He saw conflict as a social relationship
between two classes having opposing economic interests. Max Weber a German sociologist
pointed out that conflict is not confined to economic sphere alone, but it also arises over the
scarcity of resources like power and prestige as well.
Conflict may sometimes prove to be an essential part of a healthy social system, for; conflict
between two groups is essential for a social regeneration in the system. Conflict may play a
positive role, when a solution to a problem arising out of it can be found in time. However, when
the process of reconciliation takes a long time, conflict may definitely prove a negative one.
Definitions:
An analysis of the literature reveals that the term social conflict is defined in a number of ways
.Some prominent definitions are as follows:
1. According to Max Weber, “a social relationship will be referred to as conflict in so far as
action within it is oriented intentional to carrying out the actor’s own will against the
resistance of the other party or parties”.
2. According to A.W.Green, “conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce
the will of other or others”.
3. In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “conflict is the social process in which individuals or
groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence”.
4. H0rton and Hunt say, “Conflict is a process of seeking to monopolize rewards by
eliminating or weakening the competitors”.
5. According to J.E.Conklin , “Conflict is a struggle over scarce resources in which one
party seeks to eliminate ,defeat, destroy ,or neutralize the opposition in order to achieve a
desired goal”.
From the above, it is clear that social conflict is an ever-present process in human relations .It is
one of the forms of struggle between individuals or groups.Bottomore (The Study of Conflict,
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18
1962) observed: “conflict is an intrinsic part of our social life, sustaining, modifying or
destroying the social groups in which it takes place”. Conflict may be destructively or
constructively directed.it may be between individuals, between groups of individuals, between
two or more societies (nations) depending whether the contradictory interests involved are
personal or of group or of whole community or nation.
Characteristics
Based on forgoing discussion, the following characteristics (nature) of conflict, in brief, may be
cited:
1. Conflict is a universal process found in every society.
2. It is the result of deliberate and conscious efforts of individuals or the groups.
3. The nature of conflict is personal and direct. In conflict, the incumbents or participants
know each other personally.
4. It emerges as a result of opposite interests.
5. It is cumulative; each act of aggression usually promotes a more aggressive rebuttal.
Thus, termination of conflict is not easy.
Causes of social conflict:
There may be several causes of social conflict, some important causes are as :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Individual /group differences.
Cultural differences.
Clash of interests.
Racial differences.
Social change.
Forms/Types of social conflict
George Simmel has distinguished between four types of conflict: (i) war (ii) feud or factional
strife (iii) litigation and (iv) conflict of impersonal ideals.
(i)War, according to Simmel, represent a deep-seated antagonistic impulse in
man.But to bring out this impulse action some definite objective is needed.
(ii) Feud is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have
been done by one group to another.
(iii)Litigation is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to
possessions. This kind of conflict is more objective in nature.
(iv) Conflict of impersonal ideals is carried out by individuals not for themselves but
for ideals.in such conflict each party justify the truthfulness. For example, the
communists and the capitalists carry on conflict to prove that their own system can
bring in a better world order.
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MacIver has talked about two types of conflict: direct and indirect conflict.
Direct conflict, according to MacIver is that, “when individuals or groups thwart or impede or
restrain or injure or destroy one another in the effort to attain some goal”.
Indirect conflict, MacIver says that, “when individuals or groups do not actually impede the efforts
of one another bout nevertheless seek to attain their ends in ways which obstruct the attainment of
the same ends by other”.
According to L.A.Coser, there are two types of conflict: internal and external conflict.
1. Internal Conflict: it is the one, which occurs within the group, and so far, it does not question
the basic value it is functional.
2. External Conflict: It is that type which occurs outside the group. This type is functional in
cementing the
internal unity.
Gillin and Gillin have classified conflict in five groups: personal; racial; class; political and
international.
1) Conflict is personal when competition is personalized .In the struggle to overcome the other
person or group; the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary importance.
2)Racial conflict arises mostly due to physiological differences which are apparently seen among
the people .One race may claim superiority over the another and starts suppressing the other
resulting in conflict. For example, the conflict between American whites and Blacks is due to
racial differences.
3) Class conflict has its basis generally in economic difference. Economy has become strong
force stratification in the industrial society. Everyone does not belong to the same class. Karl Marx
was the first sociologist to see the class conflict based on economic interests.
4) Political Conflict refers to a conflict between two or more powers.it may be between the
political parties within a country or it may be between two or more separate countries. The bases
of political conflict are political interests.
5) International conflict refers to the conflict between two or more nation states .It may take
place for political, economic, religious or ideological bases.
Role of Conflict in society:
Sociological studies reveal that conflict plays a very crucial role in every society. It is both
functional (positive) as well as negative in its nature. Cooley maintains that conflict of some sort
is the life of society. For Karl Marx history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
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struggle. George Simmel observes that a conflict-free harmonious group is practically
impossibility.
Functional (Positive) role of conflict:
According to Horton and Hunt conflict has following positives:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
It defines issues.
It increases group cohesion.
It leads to resolution of issues.
It leads to alliance with other groups.
It keeps group alert to member’s interests.
Besides the functionalities of conflict many sociologist, like Coser, Ratzenhofer and
Gumplowicz etc., have talked of the following positives of social conflict:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Conflict determines the status of individual in the social organisation.
It is the chief means of group contact.
Conflict may eventuate in peace through victory of one over others.
Conflict defines the social issues and brings about a new equilibrium of contending
forces.
e) It tends to stiffen the morale, promotes unity and cohesion within the group.
According to Horton and Hunt conflict has following dysfunctions (negatives):
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Conflict increases bitterness.
It leads to destruction and bloodshed.
It leads to inter-group tension.
It disrupts normal channels of co-operation.
It diverts members’ attention from group objectives.
Thus it can be said it nutshell that conflict causes social disorder, chaos and confusion. War
as a form of conflict may destroy the lives and property of countless individuals.it does a lot
of psychological and moral damage as well.
Theoretical Explanation of social conflict:
The tradition of conflict theory is an old one. Earlier scientists like Darwin saw conflict as inherent
in the principles of struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. Malthus a champion of
population theory argues that reduced supply of the means of subsistence is the cause of conflict.
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From sociological stand point Marx has been the most influential conflict theorist.in his view,
the existence of two mutually hostile classes is the constant source of conflict in society.
Such conflict has been present since time immemorial and has its basis in economic conditions.
Marx said that this conflict will lost till the days of final revolution by proletariat class. In
different stages of human history, conflict took different shapes, e,g.,ancient stage, feudalistic
stage, capitalistic stage and in each stage the antagonistic classes like masters and slaves ,lord
and serfs and bourgeoisie and proletariat were present respectively.
Ralf Daherendorf is another major contributor to the conflict theory. In his theory, he
emphasizes the fact that there is unequal distribution of authority in formal organization, and
this unequal distribution of authority is main source of conflict. In the view of Daherendorf,
conflict can be temporarily regulated or controlled, but it cannot be eliminated once for all.
Lowis A. Coser has written extensively on the positive function of social conflict and explains
how conflict allows expression of hostility and mending or eradicating strained relationships.
He says while it leads to elimination of specific sources of conflict between parties, it rectifies
the grievances either by establishing new norms or expressing commitment to the old ones.
In his opinion, the more closed the group is, the more intense is the nature of conflict.
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