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ABMUN 2016
Study Guide: Special Senate of the Roman Republic
ABMUN 2016: Special Senate of the Roman Republic. Study Guide
Shanay
Dear Delegates,
Shroff
Welcome to the Special Senate of the Roman Republic! As you know, the topic of
discussion will be the problems affecting Rome in the aftermath of Caesar’s death. This
is an important yet chaotic time in history. The principles on which the Roman Republic
operated are the foundation for many legal and political standards used today. You would
be surprised how little humans have changed in the last 2000 years. Thus, this committee
will explore the birthplace of modern politics, and allow you - as senators and generals to shape history and politics
Secretary
General
Yug
Bhansali
Deputy Sec.
Gen
Shoumik
Chowdhury
Director
Simoni shah
Co-Director
Unlike in other committees, here you will be taking on the roles of individual characters
from the Senate. You will have to act according to the complex web of interpersonal
relationships (the Senate equivalent of foreign policy) and engage in a more intimate and
personal form of diplomacy.
A brief word on your directors: My name is Shoumik Chowdhury, and I will be directing
this committee along with Simoni Shah, my co-director. I am a grade 12 student pursuing
an IB Diploma (with an extended essay in math)! This is my 4th ABMUN conference,
and my 2nd time chairing one. I have been interested in Model United Nations since 8th
grade! My co-director Simoni is a grade 11 IB Diploma Programme Student. She has
participated in several MUNs across Mumbai, and was a co-director of the Security
Council last year at ABMUN 2015!
Let me remind you that – despite being set some 2000 years ago – this committee will be
following parliamentary procedure throughout its running. Paperwork will also follow the
same format as other ABMUN committees, with the exception of the ‘working paper’
which will be referred to as a ‘bill’ in the Senate. This committee will also feature a
number of crises, as the information available to your is continuously being updated. It
will be up to you to manage the situation!
A Model United Nations conference can only truly be effective if delegates are prepared
and well-researched beforehand. We hope that this background guide can form the
starting point of your research. The Roman Republic had a well-documented history and
this will make it possible to understand the historical context and long-term effects of the
policies you study.
Feel free to contact either Simoni or myself, and we will answer any questions you have!
Sincerely,
Shoumik Chowdhury and Simoni Shah
Directors of the Special Senate of the Roman Republic
1
1. Introduction One cannot discuss ancient civilisations without making a comment on the Roman Republic. Founded in 509 BCE, the Roman Republic spanned several centuries, and was a time of unprecedented growth for the Romans. Through a clever use of both defensive tactics and territorial expansion, the Romans were able to occupy all of Italy, Hispania, Gaul, Germania, and much of the Mediterranean region. As its name suggested, the Roman Republic was also the birthplace of a new form of government: the republic! As per the republican system, the populace would elect leaders to make political decisions on its behalf. The Roman political and legislative system were, in fact, so effective that many of the same ideologies are still in use in the modern day, over 2000 years later! Although it was several centuries before the republican system gained widespread traction, it granted the people of Rome the economic and political flexibility needed for the rise of the Roman Republic. However, as is oft reiterated in history textbooks ​and substandard Model UN speeches​, Rome eventually fell from within. By the time of the late empire (100 BCE) a slew of problems befell the city­state of Rome. Tensions amongst an ever­increasing population of Romans led to civil unrest and revolution. Allies of Rome demanded citizenship, and Julius Caesar gave it to them, further posing an administrative difficulty. Within the century, thirteen recorded civil wars took place. The Republic struggled economically and socially, and ­ according to the philosopher Cicero ­ Rome was steeped in moral corruption. This ranged from the failure of the ​publicani tax system in place, to wealthy senators being able to buy their way into the Senate. Julius Caesar and his associates Pompey and Crassus alleviated some of these problems when they came to power as the First Triumvirate in 59 BCE. Although they instituted popular reforms in Rome, and led a series of successful military campaigns, the First Triumvirate eventually disbanded with tensions between its members. In the aftermath, Julius Caesar was victorious. After his successes in North Africa, he returned to Rome, declaring himself a dictator for life. In truth, Caesar had already amassed the political power and influence necessary to serve as a dictator; he had tribunician (think ‘tribune’) powers, meaning that he could veto the Senate. Caesar was ready to shift away from the republican system, and under his leadership, the republican political institutions were greatly deprecated. However, the final blow to Republic came after Caesar’s assassination in March, 44 BCE. The conspirators had a host of reasons ­ political, economic, or personal ­ for killing Caesar. Nonetheless, without Caesar the Republic fell into disarray and chaos. Topic Statement: Problems faced by Rome in the aftermath of Caesar’s death, 44 BCE 1 2. History of the Roman Republic ­ 509 BCE to 71 BCE. The Roman civilisation existed long before Rome became a republic. Preceding the founding of the Republic in 509 BCE, Rome was ruled by a king albeit at the dismay of the Roman public. The founding of the republican system was, indeed, a rejection of the monarchical system, after the overthrow of king Lucius Tarquinus Suberbus in 510 BCE. In contrast, the newly founded system aimed to represent the voice of the people ­ citizens would elect leaders to vote on their behalf. Nonetheless, the transition from monarchy to republic did not occur within a fortnight; historians believe that it took decades, or even centuries, before the proper establishment of republican politics in Rome. During the early days of the Roman Republic, the chief military objective was not territorial expansion but instead a practice of self­defense. As Rome ­ then, not yet worthy of the title city­state ­ successfully defended itself against other neighboring cities, it began to grow. Soon smaller cities sought to ally with Rome for protection, and thus was borne the city­state of Rome. Even centuries later, Rome the Republic was but collection of alliances between these cities, with Rome the city at the helm. This slow territorial expansion continued for over 200 years, as Rome defeated the Latins and the Samnites, and gained control over the Italian Peninsula. Later, however, Rome defeated Pyrrhus, the Greek general from Epirus, during the Pyrrhic Wars (c. 280 BCE). Rome was able to hold itself against a stronger and more powerful enemy, thus gaining itself a military reputation. From 264 BCE until 148 BCE, Rome warred against the Carthaginian empire, in the Punic Wars. Carthage held control over most of Northern Africa, and was the reigning power across the Mediterranean. In a conflict over Sicily, where both the Carthaginians and the Romans held territory, the Romans created its first navy and won the first Punic War. This marked another turning point in Roman history, as now Rome was able to travel to and conquest lands outside the immediate Mediterranean region. Over the course of two more Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage and was able to gain control of Northern Africa and Spain. As can be seen on the map, this meant that the entire Mediterranean region was under Roman control. During the same period, Rome also made advances into Germania (modern­day Germany), Gaul, Greece, and Syria. The lands under Roman conquest were divided into territories (provinciae), each with its own governor and military force. As more territories fell under the influence of Rome, the Republic fell into an era without any major wars with foreign parties (c. 133 BCE). The previous era ­ which included the Punic Wars and expansion into the Mediterranean region ­ brought military successes for Rome, but did not bode well for the economy. However, this is not to say that Rome was stable. In fact, far from it. During the first­century BCE, a total of thirteen civil wars took place! The first several were the Servile Wars, during which slaves revolted against Rome ­ although there were more slaves than Roman masters, the Romans would eventually quell these uprisings. However, the climax of tensions in Rome came during the civil wars between generals Sulla and Marius (which will be later touched upon in this guide). These wars were a testament to the collapsing internal structure of Rome; just outside the city gates, Roman soldiers fought each other. These civil wars created the atmosphere that led up to the fall of the Republic. 2 3. The Roman Republican System of Government The transition from monarchy to republic was not easy. When the rule of the king dissolved, the power in Rome fell upon the Roman great families, the patricians. The patricians ­ representing Roman nobility and privilege ­ had sole control over the Senate, and were the only class allowed to run for political office. The commonfolk ­ the plebeians ­ had no political authority. Although a great many of the poorer citizens in Rome were plebeians, some plebeians were as wealthy as their patrician counterparts, with the only distinction being their birthright ­ or lack thereof. This class disparity existed for several hundred years, though, as you can expect, was not a sustainable model of governance. First the plebeians banded together to form separate assemblies, for which they elected their own leaders. At the time, they demanded a reduction in household debt and reduced income inequality, issues that plagued the lower classes. In 494 BCE, the plebeians threatened to leave Rome and set up their own state. To prevent this, two elected plebeian representatives ­ the tribunes ­ were taken into the Senate. These tribunes had veto power over all matters except military order. Giving the plebeians political authority also led to the creation of the Law of Twelve Tables, a civil code that dictated property law, conduct, crimes, and familial relations. It was the first attempt at a constitution, in that it applied to both plebeians and patricians. Later in 285 BCE, during the Conflict of the Orders, the wealthy plebeians gained equal authority with the patricians, with a host of laws mandating plebeian representation in government. Inter­marrying between classes allowed plebeians to enter into the patrician class. The Conflict of the Orders showed some of the key features of the Roman civilisation; instead of initiating a civil war, the Republic functioned on compromise to satisfy the majority. The patricians needed the support of the plebeians given that most of the Roman army was made up of plebeian soldiers. On the same principle, as Rome conquered more territory, it struck alliances based on compromise, rather than direct control and forced slavery. 3 The various political positions in the Republic can be summed up as follows. The highest political position available was that of ​consul. Two ​consuls were elected every year; they oversaw the workings of the Senate and had the power to veto one another. Historically, during times of crisis or war, one ​consul could be elevated to the position of dictator, giving him sole authority in order to make swifter political decisions. The ​consuls were elected from the Senate, a group of 300 patricians that functioned as the legislative branch of rome. The members of the Senate were chosen by the ​consuls. The ​consuls themselves were elected by the members of the assembly, the ​Comitia Centuriata. Generally speaking, the assemblies were a forum of discussion for the plebeians. The aforementioned tribunes voiced the wishes of the people in another assembly, the concilium plebis. The tribunes’ veto rights gave the assemblies immense power in the government; senators would need the approval of the assembly in order to be elected ​consul. Other important positions in the Roman government included the ​censor, in charge of reviewing citizens, their land and property; the ​quaestor, who served as a financial advisor; and the aedile, responsible for urban development and infrastructure, such as roads, food and water, and festivals. There were also the praetors, who were provincial governors of the various Roman territories (​provinciae); ofttimes, the (rather well­paying) position of ​praetor was given to former ​consuls after their term had finished. 4. Key Reforms Leading Up to the Roman Revolution This section discusses some of the problems faced by Rome during the late second­century (c. 133 BCE) and the key reforms taken to alleviate them. Many of the problems continued to plague Rome until the final collapse of the Republic, a century later in 27 BCE. This period, from 133 BCE to 27 BCE, during which Rome fell in and out of crises, civil wars, and uprisings would later be called the Roman Revolution. A growing military concern at the time came with the expanding size of the Roman Republic. A great many generals were stationed in ​provinciae and had not been to Rome for many years. As a result, many legions of soldiers were becoming increasingly loyal to their generals and to the ​provinciae in which they were stationed, rather than to Rome. Plundering and pillaging the camps of slain enemies became common amongst soldiers. As rural areas were conquered by Roman soldiers, more peasants and farmers started moving to capital cities (i.e Rome). Unfortunately, the majority had to resort to begging and as a result voted for whichever tribune would bring them money. This occurred on top of existing problems amongst the lower classes in Rome. Homelessness and poverty were not uncommon, and those that did have apartments often lived without clean water, sewage facilities, or light. Crime and disease were amongst the problems faced by the masses in second­century BCE Rome. The nature of these issues suggests that the underlying problems were the need for income equity and land reform. One way the the Republic ensured the continued loyalty of its (retired) generals was by giving 4 them large swathes of conquered land (​ager publicus); however, to do this Roman armies had to continue conquering more territory, displacing yet more peasants. As newly conquered lands (and therefore new wealth) were going to the generals and to the elite, income inequality worsened. The rich landowners often used their land as ​latifundia (loosely “very large farms”); these farms were run by slaves captured in battle, and were able to outcompete poorer farmers. These larger farms not only had more income, but also benefitted from economies of scale, and labor competitiveness of slave workers. Thus, rural farmers made way for Rome and other major cities. 4.1 The Gracchus Reforms In order to remedy the problems regarding land distribution and income inequality, Tiberius Gracchus proposed a series of reforms in 133 BCE. As tribune of the assembly, he suggested that every individual be given an amount of land (approximately 330 acres). This proposition would effectively give land to small­farm owners and peasants. Unfortunately, the bill was rejected by the Senate, as many senators were themselves landowners. The Senate thus used its power to prevent Tiberius from being re­elected tribune, stripping him of the immunity the position granted. Tiberius and 300 of his followers were then killed. This agenda was later addressed by Tiberius’ brother Gaius Gracchus, in 123 BCE. Gaius proposed a similar land reform, while also proposing a change in the tax system, lowering the price of grain, and increasing pay for soldiers. He also included a system of ‘checks­and­balances’ to control the power wielded by senators. Unlike his brother, Gaius was able to garner public support. However, once again the Senate stepped in, declaring martial law. In the ensuing riot, 3000 people were killed, including Gaius, whose head was severed and thrown into the river Tiber. The failure of the Gracchi brothers’ reforms shed light on the corruption and selfishness within the Senate, setting a precedent for the century to follow. 5 4.2 The Marian Reforms Many of the soldiers came from the lower stratum of social class in Rome. However, the actions of the Roman armies and the elite senators made it difficult to enlist new soldiers; the army could only take soldiers wealthy enough to afford swords and armor for themselves. With rising income inequality, the armies could not be maintained. To counteract this, general Gaius Marius enacted the Marian reforms. Marius removed the law that every soldier needed his own land, and also accepted volunteer conscripts into the army. However, the Marian reforms also allowed power to be concentrated in the hands of a select few that could support the financial needs of the army. In short the Marian reforms led to a disestablishment of many of the checks­and­balances on which the Republic operated. Nonetheless, Marius was popular and was elected consul seven times. His rule came to an end when he was overthrown by the general Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 88 BCE. As previously touched upon, this civil war was a precedent for the conflict to come. After a brief campaign in Pontus (modern­day Turkey) Sulla returned to Rome in 82 BCE and named himself dictator. He also led a series of reforms, primarily mandating that assemblies require Senate approval before passing a law. Sulla made it illegal for a tribune to hold any other political office, and also restricted the term of the provincial governors to one year; these curtailed the rise of any other senators or generals wishing to rule Rome. 5. Julius Caesar and the First Triumvirate Gaius Julius Caesar was born on July 13th, 100 BCE. A member of the patrician class, he was expected to hold both military and political office. Although his family did not historically wield power, his aunt married the general Gaius Marius. When Sulla rose to power, Caesar had no choice but to flee Rome, only returning upon Sulla’s death in 78 BCE1 . His first military position came when he was made military tribune. Caesar then went on to become the ​quaestor (financial advisor) in 69 BCE, and ​praetor (governor) in Hispania in 62 BCE. He then decided in 60 BCE to run for the position of ​consul. To do this he approached Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of the I have left out several interesting details about Caesar’s early life ­ in fact, he was once captured by pirates! 1
6 wealthiest men in Rome, for financial help. After winning the election the following year, Caesar and Crassus also formed an alliance with the influential military general Pompey (latin: Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus). This alliance would later be referred to as the First Triumvirate. The three had great influence over Rome and ­ by virtue of Pompey’s army ­ were able to convince the Senate to pass a great number of reforms. Caesar’s popularity amongst the plebeian class and in the assemblies no doubt aided the Triumvirate. Caesar also launched a campaign into Gaul ­ where he had been appointed governor ­ conquering new territories and even making advances into Britain. By 54 BCE Caesar successfully had all of Gaul under his control. Meanwhile in Rome, the Triumvirate was failing. Crassus, who sought to make more money, launched a military into Parthia; unfortunately, his army was defeated and he was killed in 53 BCE. This disbanded the Triumvirate, and intensified the animosity between Pompey ­ who then had been elected consul ­ and Caesar. Pompey and the Senate demanded that Caesar step down as ​consul, with a plan to prosecute him for exceeding his term. This prompted Caesar to cross the Rubicon (river) with his 13​th legion and take over Rome. Pompey and his army fled the city for Greece. After Caesar and his legion defeated Pompey’s lieutenants in Spain, Caesar proceeded to Greece where he defeated Pompey’s army. Pompey, however, fled to Egypt and was later killed2 . Although upon Caesar’s return to Rome in 48 BCE, he was named dictator and consul, he journeyed to Egypt in search of Pompey. He was involved in the Egyptian Civil War, aiding Cleopatra, and only returned to Rome in 46 BCE after several military campaigns. 5.1 Caesar: Dictatorship and Reform By 46 BCE, Caesar was declared dictator for 10 years; later, in the month preceding his death, he was declared dictator for life. However, he also held consulship and held tribunician power over the assembly. The plebeian class did not object to Caesar coming to power. Many of Caesar’s populist reforms and policies aimed to please the people of Rome, and were very effective in doing so. After conducting a census, and carefully checking eligibility based on citizenship, Caesar revised the grain dole policy, which was a government­subsidized food distribution system. Free grain was (supposedly) given to over 300,000 Romans, a number that was cut down to 150,000 after Caesar implemented more thorough checks. Despite this, Caesar tried to improve the supply of grain coming into Rome by ­ for example ­ constructing a new canal from Tarracina. Caesar also changed land redistribution laws, drawing on the archaic policies of Gracchus; land in the newly established provinces was given to the poorer classes. In other cases, Caesar attempted land reclamation, draining marshes to create new land. An estimated 80,000 people were resettled into rural 2
​Killed: where he would later be decapitated and his head presented to Caesar as a gift. 7 homes, reducing congestion in Rome. Caesar also mandated that large farms (​latifundi) employ a certain number of free Roman citizens alongside slave labor, temporarily ensuring jobs to the resettled. Other jobs provided were public works projects such as the reconstruction of Corinth and Carthage; Caesar promoted economic growth. Along with quelling protests by reducing labor unions numbers, Caesar also implemented a change to the debt system, by making debtors only responsible to pay money as it was worth before the civil war, essentially accounting debt figures for inflation. Caesar also amended tax policies in Sicily and Asia. It is often ​wrongly quoted that Caesar abolished the practice of tax farming (addressed later); tax­farming continued to exist well after Caesar’s death. Caesar also granted citizenship rights to people living outside of Roman; first to the Italians, and later to the peoples of Spain and Gaul. This allowed them special rights and benefits, as well as protection by Rome. In particular, he gave citizenship to Greek teachers and scholars to bring them to Rome; Caesar wanted to increase government support to public education. Interestingly, Caesar also introduced the Julian calendar which synchronised with the seasons. He named the month of July after himself! Some of Caesar’s policies were less beneficial to the Republic. He limited the term for ​praetors to only one year, to prevent governors and generals from rising to power. He also increased the number of senators in the Senate to 900 at one point, which diminished the prestige that the noble classes had previously associated with the position. It also reduced the power of the Senate. He also passed on a great number of Senate bills to the Assemblies, making it difficult for the Assemblies to pass laws. Caesar had immense control over the Senate and could have propositions passed as easily as they could be vetoed. In the months before his death, Caesar was also planning to launch a full­scale campaign into Parthia; there was money to be made in Parthia, and a chance to avenge Crassus, Caesar’s late friend. By the time Caesar was named dictator for life, other senators had grown weary. Besides having amassed great political power and influence, Julius Caesar was also bestowing honors and titles unto himself. His face was printed on the face of the denarius coins. The Senate was a far cry from its republican ideal; in fact, many of the old republican institutions of Rome were failing. As mentioned before bribery, extortion, and ‘moral corruption’ were rife. Many senators ­ who would later become known as the liberators ­ feared that Caesar would crown himself king3 . Monarchy was still a taboo topic in Rome; even five centuries later, no king ­ nor queen, as Cleopatra would find ­ was allowed to live in the city. The liberators did not want Caesar to make for Parthia on the 18​th of March, as planned. A victory in Parthia would augment Caesar’s popularity, and make it easier for him to crown himself. Killing Caesar would bring the Republic back to its former glory reasoned the liberators, many of whom were also jealous of Caesar . Thus began the conspiracy, led by praetor Gaius Cassius Longinus, and Caesar’s good friend Decimus Junius Brutus. ​This started when one architect placed a diadem on a statue of Caesar, creating the perception of Caesar as a king 3
8 On the Ide of March (15​th March, 44 BCE), almost sixty senators assembled to assassinate Caesar, on the steps of the Senate. Casca came first attempting to pull down Caesar’s garb and stab him in the neck. Soon, Brutus and the others came ­ Caesar fell to the floor defenseless, and was stabbed twenty­three times4,​ 5 . He bled to death in the Senate hall. Many of the conspirators had only a vague conception of the plan, and did not know what was to be done after Caesar was killed. as Brutus6 and the others watched over After Caesar’s death, however, chaos ensued in Rome. Masses of the plebeians supported Caesar for his policies. Meanwhile, many senators and generals remained loyal to him, including Caesar’s close friend Mark Antony and his adoptive­son/great­nephew and heir Gaius Octavian. Suffice it to say that the demise of the Roman Republic was sealed on the eve of the Ide of March. "It is more important for Rome than for myself that I should survive. I have
long been sated with power and glory; but, should anything happen to me,
Rome will enjoy no peace. A new Civil War will break out under far worse
conditions than the last."
- G. Julius Caesar, 44 BCE
6. Challenges Posed to the Republic after the Ide of March After Caesar’s death, a great number of political, social, economic, and military problems befell Rome. Many of these problems existed before the fall of Caesar, but were aggravated as the Republic lacked a leader. That statement itself goes to show how much the Republic had changed. At the same time, Caesar’s assassination was unprecedented; in the past, political leaders were removed from power through civil war, or riot. The consensus amongst the people of Rome became that if Caesar ­ the most powerful man in the Republic ­ could be killed, no one was safe. 6.1 ​Caesar’s Power Vacuum​ and the challenge with Republicanism The Senate was a far cry from its former self in the earlier days of the Republic. During Caesar’s dictatorship, it’s power was considerably diminished. At the same time, Caesar’s unique position meant that if any man or political group were to succeed him, he would have power over Rome. Whereas Caesar’s supporters could be convinced to champion his heir Gaius Octavian, the liberators would not approve; they wanted to restore Rome to the old days of the Republic. 4
Interesting. Let’s agree that the penalty for making a bad point in this committee will be getting stabbed 23 times. Please don’t take this literally, I was kidding. 5
The famous line ‘Et tu, Brute?’ (meaning ‘you too, Brutus?’) was actually written by William Shakespeare for the play Julius Caesar. In reality, Caesar’s last words would most likely have been an assortment of wails and dying sounds 6
9 Several broad considerations arise from this. Should Rome try to amend itself and return to the republican system that was successful in the past centuries? Or has the Republic failed, and is a structure necessary in the government? If so, what? The liberators would likely favor the former option; many of Caesar’s allies, the latter. In either case, the system will have to amend the long standing class disparity between the patricians and plebeians. Furthermore, how will the power vacuum left by Caesar be filled? ​Will it be an individual (and if so, who?) or will some form of coalition be necessary? If the latter, how will the coalition be led, given the ambitions of politicians and generals across the Republic. The answer to this will depend of the form of government that the committee finally decides upon. 6.2 Class tensions and crime in Rome Even before Caesar’s death, Rome was strife with what Cicero called “moral corruption”. Especially amongst the lower classes, crime was not uncommon. Many wealthy families ­ patricians and plebeians alike ­ kept household guards, although ofttimes these were the families of military commanders that had the means and arms to protect themselves. The higher classes, too, were not exempt from this corruption, although they were more like to cover their tracks. Bribery was commonplace, especially by those senators that wanted to be elected to office. Juries could be bribed, and very few checks on the power of the wealthy. There was a large disparity between the ‘obscenely rich’ and the working class of Rome. Furthermore, despite the plebeians reforms of the 3​rd century BCE, social mobility was still limited, as the wealthy sought to consolidate their power. Often landowners were able to outperform small farmers, and soon grew to control swathes of land in Italy. In the aftermath of Caesar’s death, the plebeians were fit to riot. Due to his Caesar’s populist policies, he was well loved by the masses. Especially with the other problems regarding social class, it would not be long before another uprising. The liberators would need to explain why Caesar’s death was justified (or necessary?). Similarly the government would have to quell the anger of the people ­ not only in Rome, but in the Republic at large. It would need to work towards some concessions for the lower classes, lest the threat of a civil war materialise. 6.3 Taxation and government funding in the Republic The Republic spent a lot of money. Rome’s list of expenses included paying soldiers, giving land to generals, subsidizing grain, administrative costs in the ​provinciae, funding public works projects, maintaining infrastructure (i.e roads or public baths) in Rome, et cetera, seemingly ad infinitum. Perhaps an important reason for rising taxes in Rome ­ touched upon earlier ­ was the need to subsidize grain7 . As mentioned before, by the time of Caesar’s death over 150,000 people were being given grain ​http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato­journal/1994/11/cj14n2­7.pdf 7
10 free of cost. Many people were dependent on this supply of food, which ­ during the time of Caesar’s death ­ were beginning to fall short. (Much of Rome’s grain came from Sicily. Later, much after the events of this committee, Sextus Pompeius would become a rebel and make access to grain difficult.) The problem of taxation in the Republic also required urgent attention. The Roman system made use of so­called ‘tax­farmers’, or ​publicani. These were (usually rich, land­owning) individuals that were in charge of collecting money for a particular region. The Senate decided who could be a tax­farmer, which led to bribery in the system. The ​publicani gave their own money to the state in advance for a particular period; they were then responsible to make back their bid amount by collecting money or property from the locals. As the locals’ ability to pay varied around the year, such tax collection was referred to as ‘farming’. Sometimes the ​publicani would be in debt, if they were unable to collect as much as they bid. Usually, however, they used extortion, blackmail, or threat of violence to overtax the locals, and turn a profit. Quite often, these ​publicani were also money­lenders! It is arguable that Caesar would have tackled tax­farming had he lived. Taxes were ill­liked by most everyone in Rome, especially the plebeians that were worst affected by tax­farmers. By 44 BCE, locals had already begun to pose complaints about the system. Irrespective of whether the committee changes the form of government in Rome, or reverts it to the old republican system, the tax policy will need to be changed. Should the directed taxes be conducted by the government rather than through the ​publicani? How will Rome manage the financial burden of this? Or should the tax­farming policy be amended to include more checks and balances? 6.4 Trouble from the ​provinciae and beyond This committee is set at the heart of Rome, which during 44 BCE remained the most powerful force in the Mediterranean region. In the aftermath of Caesar’s death Rome fell into chaos, seemingly unable to control itself. This provided an opportunity to outlying ​provinciae in the Republic to try and break away to gain independence. Worse, it opened­up the possibility of an attack from the nearby Parthian empire, or any foreign army wanting to use Rome’s disarray to it’s advantage. Even before Caesar’s death, Rome faced difficulties managing the all of the territories in the Republic. However, afterwards, this problem has been gravely exacerbated. How will the Senate maintain stability in the Republic? How will it respond to internal and external threats? 11 7. Character Background Delegates may not find enough information for certain characters, so a brief summary has been provided here. Marcus Brutus Marcus Antonius Marcus Junius Brutus, born 85 BCE. Brutus was the son of Marcus Brutus (the elder). After his father was brutally murdered, he was raised by his uncle, Cato the younger. Brutus served under Pompey until Pompey was defeated. Julius Caesar, however, pardoned him and governed northern Italy. He was then appointed him the city ​praetor in 44 BCE. Brutus was also a loyal friend to Caesar but nonetheless decided to plot his assassination. Brutus wanted to restore the Republic to its rightful form. [Also known as Mark Antony] Born in 83 BCE. After the unfortunate death of his birth father and later his adoptive father, he joined the army in 58 BCE. In 54 BCE he joined Caesar in Gaul and sided with him during the civil war. Right before Caesar’s death he was made ​consul of the state. He was a staunch supporter of Caesar, and would later go on to ally with Octavian against Marcus Brutus and the liberators. Gaius Octavianus Publius Cornelius Dolabella Born around 70 BCE, Dolabella was a Roman general who supported Pompey during the civil war and later Born in 63 BCE to Gaius Octavius (the Elder) and Atia, became an emissary to Caesar during the battle of he was received by Julius Caesar after their death. Pharsalus. When he returned to Rome in 47 BCE, he Octavanius was great­nephew to Caesar. In 45 BCE had a plebeian adopt him, which allowed him to run for Octavian went to Spain to join Caesar. It was later the tribune. He proposed a bill to waive all taxes which found that Caesar had named him as his heir. After the sparked many conflicts (largely because he cumulated assassination on the Ides of March, Octavian returned multiple loans). As a close confidante to Brutus, to claim his legacy. While he was in Rome he Dolabella wanted a consulship in the aftermath of concentrated on expanding his fame with people in Caesar’s death. general as Caesar's beneficiary. However, he depended on the advice of Agrippa for many of his military Marcus Aemilius Lepidus conquests. Lepidus was a deep rooted supporter of Caesar. When Caesar went to war against Pompey in 49 BCE, Lepidus was made responsible for Rome while Caesar Gaius Cassius Longinus Born in 42 BC, little is known of his early life. was away. Later in 46 BCE, he became ​consul in 44 Longinus became a tribune in 49 BCE and fought in BCE became the governor of both Gallia Narbonensis the civil war. He was to be sentenced for extortion, but (Gaul) and Hispania Citerior (Spain). Throughout his barely survived. Longinus later came to terms with political vocation, Lepidus picked up the notoriety of Caesar and eventually became a ​legate. In 44 BCE, he being the most dreaded man in Rome. After Caesar's became a ​praetor peregrinus. However, he became death in 44 BCE, Lepidus acted unequivocally to offended when his younger brother­in­law, Marcus re­establish order in the city of Rome. Junius Brutus, was appointed ​praetor urbanus. He went on to become one of the lead conspirators against Lucius Sergius Caesar, and played a lead role in Caesar’s Born in 83 BCE to Augustus and Cassia Sergius. assassination. Sergia was a noble family who were loyal supporters of Caesar. He was sent to Eupheus to study philosophy, literature, and politics. Upon his return to Rome in 43 BCE, he was appointed senator due to his status. 12 Gaius Cassius Parmensis Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius Born in 67 BCE., Sextus Pompeius was the younger child of Pompey the Great, of the first triumvirate. Sextus battled as a general with the Spanish armies before his brother was caught and murdered in the Battle of Munda (45 BCE). Although Sextus survived, many of his kin from the Pompeian family were captured. In the aftermath, Sextus constructed his base Marcus Tullius Cicero​ (philosopher, politician) Born in 106 BCE, Cicero studied Roman law under in Sicily, which would become a place of refuge for Quintus Mucius Scaevola and was also a famous other supporters of Pompey. (Especially after philosopher, writer, and lawyer. Cicero was elected Pompey’s death in Egypt, and Caesar’s return to Rome) quaestor in 75 BCE, ​praetor in 66 and ​consul in 63. He Sextus was a well­known figure in Rome, even after governed the province of Cilicia in 51 BCE, and the death of his father and his subsequent outcast to returned to Rome amidst the conflict between Pompey Sicily. He did not support Caesar, but upheld the values and Caesar. He did not support either side, but of the Republic. disapproved of Caesar’s dictatorship. Throughout the latter half of the 1st century BCE, Cicero advocated the Livius Tiberius reestablishment of old Republican ideals. He did not Born in 78 BCE to an aristocratic family. Livius grew to become a staunch supporter of the Republicans, play any role during Caesar’s assassination. given his family involvement in politics. Livius Tiberius began to feel strong animosity towards Caesar, Theodelus Claudii Born in 67 BCE to a famous political family. After the on the onset of Caesar’s dictatorship. Although he did unfortunate death of his parents he was adopted by his not take part in the assassination of Caesar, he strongly uncle, a loyalist supporter to Julius Caesar. He supported the old Republican system. followed in his uncle’s footsteps as a soldier to Caesar Born in 74 BCE. Little is known of his previous life. He was a politician and writer, a close friend to Cicero. He was one of the lead conspirators against Julius Caesar, and played a part in the assassination as well. He was a close friend of Cassius Longinus. during the civil war and soon became a comrade to him as well. He supported Caesar’s dictatorship and the abolition of the Republic. Aurelius Sergius Born in 85 BCE to a Roman aristocrat family, little is known of his earlier life. As a child, however, Sergius idolised Pompeius, and later joined his army as a resourceful strategist during the civil war. After the war was over, he was awarded the position as the senator in 43 BCE.. He continues to be a strong supporter of Pompeius and his beliefs. Julius Cornelius Julius Cornelius was born in 90 BCE to Albus and Antonia Cornelius. He studied law and philosophy under Marcus Tullius Cicero until 75 BCE. He followed Cicero to Cilicia. Eventually upon recommendation from Marcus Junius Brutus, he was appointed the position of senator on the council. Quintus Labienus Quintus Labienus was the son of general Titus Labienus, who had been a lieutenant to Caesar. A young politician, he fell under the direction of Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius Longinus. A capable speaker and ambassador, Quintus supported and advocated the restoration to the old Republic. Munatius Plancus Placanus came from a politically connected Roman family. He was viewed as politically and diplomatically unreliable by Mark Antony. Celsus Publius Celsus Publius born in 85 BCE, and was a distant family relative of Pompey. He supported Pompey financially, which lead to him gaining a position in the Senate with the help of Pompey’s influence. After the fallout between Caesar and Pompey, however, he fled Rome for Sicily, joining Sextus Pompeius Magnus. 13 Quintus Herminius Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus Born in 76 BCE to a patrician family. Herminius grew up following the footsteps of his family and supported Caesar during the civil war. He later joined the Senate. In 44 BCE, he was promised the position of ​praetor in Pontus by Caesar. However, his status as ​praetor is not certain in the aftermath of Caesar’s assassination. [Not to be confused with Marcus Brutus] Born in 85 BCE, Decimus Brutus rapidly rose through the military hierarchy. He was responsible for Caesar’s fleet in Brittany and later served as Caesar’s ​legate during Gallic wars. Decimus Brutus supported Caesar during the Civil War, and was presented with the opportunity with commanding Caesar’s fleet at the siege of Massilia. He served a ​praetor in Gaul, and was later promised the position of ​proconsul and eventually the consul of Gaul in 44 BCE – 42 BCE. Regardless of him being a part of Caesar’s inner circle he helped in the plotting of the assassination, as he was against the idea of ending the Republic. Maximus Aemiliaus Born in 69 BCE, his mother died in childbirth and his father soon passed away soon after. At a young age he joined Caesar’s army and he rose through the ranks, eventually becoming a general. He was a well ­ respected man. This is what helped him gain a position in the Senate. He neither sided with the liberators nor the Caesar supporters. Pompeius Romilus Pompeius was born in 97 BCE to a wealthy and a well politically connected family. Little is known of his Born in 78 BCE, Voltinaus came from a family with a earlier life until he joined the Senate after the civil war. long history in the Senate. He too became a senator, He strongly disapproved of the idea of abolishing the and supported Caesar’s reforms. However, he was Republic. against the idea of Caesar’s dictatorship, and instead believed in the power of the Senate. Augustin Decimus Augustin was born in 87 BCE. His parents passed Lucius Antonius away, leaving him with a considerable fortune. This Born in 82 BC, to Julia Marcus and Antonius, he was allowed him to buy his way into the Senate. Further
brother to Mark Antony, and was a loyal supporter of he supported Caesar, believing that dictatorship was Caesar. more effective than a Senate. Septimus Voltinaus Publius Ventidius Bassus. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa A common soldier, who soon gained the position of one of the staff officers and later a general. In his youth he was enslaved by Pompeius Strabo.He impressed Caesar during the Gallic Wars, with his ability to follow orders. He later joined Caesar as an army contractor. Born as a plebeian in 68 BCE, he became famous for his brilliant strategies and plans. Agrippa went on to become a faithful lieutenant, friend and a son­in­law to Octavian. He was also a renowned architect, statesman and general. Agrippa was with Octavian in Apollonia when Caesar was assassinated. 14 7. Agenda and Final Note The problems detailed in section 6 represent the topics on the agenda for the Special Senate of the Roman Republic. Any bill (read, ‘resolution’) must address the questions and issues raised in section 6. We will be following an open­agenda schema, so senators will have to decide which of these issues is most urgent and needs to be discussed first. The committee may discuss one problem at length, and another only briefly, and the way the agenda items are divided remains at the discretion of the committee. We understand that the prospect of being in a committee set two­thousand years in the past seems daunting. It can be difficult to determine what was going on in that time­period. Nonetheless we hope that this ambiguity will prompt your own research and investigation. It is advised that you consult several sources before arriving at any conclusion. At the same time, you will find that the policies that you would implement in any modern­era committee can be loosely applied to a Roman committee as well. For example, you might draw parallels between the Republic and the US partisan system of government, both of which are republics. If anything this is a testament to how little the fundamentals of politics have changed in the last two­thousand years. You’d be surprised! As a committee­director, I hope that being a part of this committee will give you this unique perspective, and also reiterate the unsung motto of policy, diplomacy, and the UN: that the consequences of our actions matter. After all what the Roman society did still affects us today, thousands of years later. 15 Sources Used These videos provide a fun introduction to the Roman Republic. Highly recommended. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWvpBI9YsBk https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPf27gAup9U [1] "The Roman Republic." ​The Met's Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Department of Greek and Roman Art. Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oct. 2000. Web. 14 July 2016. <​http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/romr/hd_romr.htm​>. [2] Wasson, Donald L. "Roman Republic." ​Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., 7 Apr. 2016. Web. 15 July 2016. <​http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Republic/​>. [3] "The Rise and Fall of the Roman Republic – Citizenship, Expansion, Income Inequality and Empire." Place Du Luxembourg. N.p., 11 Nov. 2012. Web. 15 July 2016. <​https://placeduluxembourg.wordpress.com/2013/11/11/the­rise­and­fall­of­the­roman­republic­income­inequ
ality­and­expansion/​>. [4] Kreis, Steven. "Lecture 11: Republican Rome, 509­31 BC." ​The History Guide. N.p., 3 Aug. 2009. Web. 15 July 2016. <​http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture11b.html​>. [5] ​"Ides of March." ​UNRV History. UNRV.com, N.p. n.d. Web. 19 July 2016. <​http://www.unrv.com/fall­republic/ides­of­march.php​>. [6] ​"Taxes in the Roman Empire." ​UNRV History. UNRV.com, n.d. Web. 21 July 2016. <​http://www.unrv.com/economy/roman­taxes.php​>. Notes *I normally dislike the Times New Roman font but found it aptly befitting for this committee **You can draw parallels between the fall of the Roman Republic and the fall of the Galactic Republic in Star Wars. Compare Caesar to Emperor Palpatine, except that Palpatine survived. 16