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T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n
A Collaboration of National Community Organisations
Biodiversity in Australia
Life on Earth depends on the complex interaction of many
natural processes. Plants purify the air and water, trap
sunlight and produce food for other species. Trees provide
habitat and food for plants, birds, insects, and other animals, and are also important ‘sinks’ for the absorption of
carbon dioxide. Fungi and micro-organisms create and
maintain the productivity of soils by recycling organic
materials. Birds, insects and mammals pollinate plants
and maintain nutrient cycles. Parasites and predators provide natural population control. Wetlands provide habitats
for a great variety of life forms and serve as ‘sponges’ to
reduce floods and cleanse streams.
This diversity of living things also holds the key to scientific knowledge about the origins of life. It is is the result of
billions of years of evolution. It provides basic life support
for human societies and underpins the success of many
industries, including agriculture, tourism, cosmetics and
pharmaceuticals.
Biodiversity loss is therefore of profound significance.
Ways that biodiversity has been defined
Biodiversity refers to the full diversity of living things on
Earth. A more formal definition was arrived at during the
1992 United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The
Summit defined biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial
marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological
complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity
within species, between species and of ecosystems”. This
definition was adopted by the United Nations Convention
on Biological Diversity (1993). The Convention has been
signed by nearly every country in the world, including
Australia. Signatory countries are committed to three
main goals: conservation of biodiversity; development of
national strategies for the sustainable use of biodiversity;
and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from
resources (for example, transfer of biotechnology) in
all societies.
There are three levels of biodiversity:
• Species diversity defines the number of species and their
relative abundance in a defined area, and is often used
as an indicator of ecosystem health and quality. For
example, rainforest vegetation contains a high diversity
of plant species (up to 500 species per hectare) and up to
eight levels of vegetation, providing ideal conditions for
birds and animals to nest and feed. By contrast, Eucalyptus open forests support less biodiversity (up to 150 species per hectare) and no more than five levels of
vegetation; Eucalyptus forests are also subject to more
disturbance, such as periodic fires. Heathland is even
less biodiverse, containing no more than 60 species per
hectare and no more than two levels of vegetation;
heathland, too, is highly disturbance-prone, requiring
regular fire for regeneration.
• Genetic diversity is the variety and combination of genes
within species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms. The maintenance of genetic diversity is
essential for natural selection, adaptation and survival.
• Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats such
as forests, deserts, wetlands, rivers, mountains and coral
reefs and the interaction between species within a given
ecosystem. Ecosystems function according to complex
networks between biotic (living) components such as
plants and animals, and abiotic (non-living) factors such
as air, sunlight, water, minerals and nutrients. Ecosystems supporting a higher diversity of plant species, such
as tropical rainforests also support a higher diversity of
animal species. For instance, it is estimated that 50-90%
of all species, both flora and fauna, exist in tropical rainforests. Over 2,600 bird species (approximately 30% of
total bird species) live in this complex environment.
Diversity within natural ecosystems leads to stability;
the modification of a natural ecosystem leads to lower
diversity and instability.
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T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n
The United Nations Convention on
Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) entered into
force on 29 December 1993. It was established in response
to the world community’s increasing commitment to sustainable development and increasing concern about biodiversity loss. Although humanity’s economic and social
development relies fundamentally on biological resources,
biodiversity is being lost at rates unprecedented in human
history.
Currently, 193 countries are Parties to the CBD. Its Secretariat periodically releases the Global Biodiversity Outlook,
with the third and most recent edition being published in
2010. It highlighted constant and in some cases intensifying biodiversity losses. Habitat loss, unsustainable use and
overexploitation of resources, climate change, invasive
alien species and pollution continue to affect most countries to an alarming extent. For example, if further deforestation occurs in the Brazilian Amazon, the combined
effects of deforestation, fires, droughts and climate change
could cause a widespread dieback with dramatic changes
to the vegetation. There would also be global impacts
associated with increased carbon emissions and massive
loss of biodiversity. Coral reefs are also facing catastrophic
loss of biodiversity due to warmer sea temperatures, overfishing and pollution, threatening the livelihoods and food
security of hundreds of millions of people.
The latest CBD summit took place in October 2010 in
Nagoya, Japan. Three measures were adopted to help
ensure that the planet’s ecosystems will continue to sustain human wellbeing in the future. These measures were:
• A new ten-year plan - the Strategic Plan of the Convention
on Biological Diversity (also known as the ‘Aichi Target’)
to guide international and national efforts;
• A strategy to substantially increase current levels of
development assistance in support of biodiversity; and
• A new international protocol to ensure the fair sharing
of benefits from the use of the Earth’s genetic resources.
The Aichi Target will be the overarching framework
on biodiversity for the United Nations, and is expected to
be implemented locally, nationally and internationally
by 2012. It aims to address the underlying causes of
biodiversity loss, to safeguard biodiversity and enhance
its benefits, and to provide for capacity-building. Parties
at the summit agreed to the following actions and targets,
which regrettably are not binding on nation states:
• To at least halve and, where feasible, bring close to zero
the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests;
• To protect 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water
areas and 10 per cent of marine and coastal areas;
• To restore at least 15 per cent of degraded areas through
conservation and restoration efforts; and
• To make special efforts to reduce the pressures faced by
coral reefs.
These targets will complement the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety, an international agreement established in 2003
to supplement the CBD. The Cartagena Protocol seeks to
protect biological diversity from potential risks resulting
from modern biotechnology. It aims to promote informed
decision-making at the national level regarding the importation of genetically modified organisms.
Australia’s biodiversity
Australia is is one of 17 countries in the world which are
recognised as ‘megadiverse’, meaning that they harbour
a high percentage of the Earth’s species. Scientists estimate a total of 8.7 million species exist worldwide, including approximately 1 million species inhabiting Australia.
70 per cent of the world’s species are found in Australia,
Brazil, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mexico, Peru and the Democratic
Republic of Congo. In Australia, more than 80% of plant
and animal species are endemic, which means that they
do not occur naturally anywhere else. Notable proportions
of species endemic to Australia are 85 per cent of the
nation’s flowering plant species (one of the highest in the
world), 93 per cent of its reptiles, 87 per cent of its mammals, 85 per cent of its temperate inshore fish and approximately 45 per cent of its bird species. There are more than
2,800 endemic plant species in the eucalyptus forests,
woodlands and heathlands of south-western Western Australia alone. Australia’s rich biodiversity is largely due to
geographical isolation, continental separation and the
uniqueness of its climate and environment.
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Biodiversity loss in Australia
The factors that contribute to loss of biodiversity include
soil and vegetation disturbance; feral animals; the introduction of other exotic species such as weeds and parasites; fire; the depletion of water resources; habitat loss
and destruction; and plant disease. These threats are
largely the result of land modification (such as deforestation, mining, agriculture, road works and urban development), and the impact of climate change, salinity,
pollution and unsustainable commercial activities (such
as over-fishing). Some species can adapt to changing conditions, but the many that cannot adapt become depleted
or disappear.
The Australian landmass is divided into bioregions: large,
geographically distinct areas of land with common characteristics such as geology, landform patterns, climate,
ecological features and plant and animal communities.
Of Australia’s 85 bioregions, 80 bioregions include at least
one threatened ecosystem. The National Land and Water
Resources Audit (1997–2002) identified almost 2,900
threatened ecosystems and ecological communities across
Australia. These threatened areas are especially prevalent
in the southern and eastern regions of the continent.
Below are some examples of biodiversity threats in different regions and habitats.
The tropical lands of northern Australia
The tropical lands of northern Australia are home to hundreds of species of native plants, mammals, birds, reptiles
and amphibians and tens of thousands of invertebrate species. They include some of Australia’s most loved natural
wonders, such as World Heritage listed Kakadu National
Park and the wetlands of Roebuck Bay (surrounding
Broome). Northern Australia’s environments are under
increased pressure from land clearing, overgrazing, inappropriate or altered fire regimes and mining. Wetlands
face serious threats such as salt water intrusion into freshwater floodplains, and invasion of introduced plants and
feral animals such as buffaloes, cane toads and pigs.
their grandeur and the rich array of life forms they support. Since European settlement, half of Australia’s forests
and three quarters of its rainforests have been cleared and
over 90 per cent of old growth forests have been logged.
Of our remaining forest areas, only 17 per cent are protected from logging and half of these protected areas have
already been logged. The forests under threat are beautiful, irreplaceable and vital to wildlife. They include the
tallest flowering plants on Earth and some of Australia’s
most significant tracts of temperate rainforest. Saving our
forests does not equate to employment losses. There are
many opportunities to create jobs and new industries
while protecting old growth forests.
Rangelands
Nearly 75% of Australia’s landmass is rangeland. Rangelands include a variety of ecosystems including native
grasslands, woodlands and shrublands. Livestock grazing
on native pastures is common practice across the rangelands, while broadscale cropping and cultivation is limited. Home to over 1,800 identified plant species and 600
vertebrate animals, this wealth of biodiversity is under
threat due to land degradation from overgrazing, soil
salinity, reduced water quality and other unsustainable
land management practices. Other impacts include mining, tourism and the increased numbers and dispersal of
weeds and feral animals in various regions.
Marine environments
Australia’s marine environments reach from the tropics to
Antarctica. For many years the ocean has been considered
an inexhaustible fish resource and a bottomless pit for our
waste. As our population has grown, the pressures on
oceans have increased. A decade ago, Australia had five
fish species categorised as ‘over-fished’; now there are seventeen. Over-fishing, pollution from urban and rural runoff, introduced marine pests, loss of habitat due to coastal
developments, coral bleaching and other problems linked
to climate change contribute to the destruction of marine
environments and ocean life.
Threatened flora and fauna
Forests
Australia’s forests – extending from the towering ancient
forests of the Styx in Tasmania to the tropical Daintree
rainforest of Queensland – are recognised worldwide for
The tables below indicate the numbers of species of fauna
and flora that are currently under threat and/or extinct in
Australia. It is worth noting that mammal extinctions represent half of the world’s most recent fauna extinctions.
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T h e A u s t r a l i a n C o l l a b o r at i o n
Table 1: Threatened or extinct fauna in Australia
Category of threatened
or extinct fauna
Number of species of mammals, reptiles, birds, frogs,
fishes and other animals
Extinct
55
Extinct in the wild
1
Critically endangered
40
Endangered
143
Vulnerable
201
Conservation dependent
Total
4
444
From Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population
and Communities. Biodiversity Species Profile and Threats Database:
EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna. Australian Government.
http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.
pl?wanted=fauna
Table 2: Threatened or extinct flora in Australia
Category of threatened or
extinct flora
Number of species of plants
of all kinds
Extinct
42
Extinct in the wild
0
Critically endangered
118
Endangered
531
Vulnerable
651
Conservation dependent
Total
0
1342
that the draft strategy has many critical failings and is
unlikely to work effectively to protect Australia’s rich biological diversity. They recommended that the new strategy
acknowledge the drivers of biodiversity loss, set clear and
accountable biodiversity targets, and include a far stronger
raft of principles, policies and commitments by all levels of
government and the populace.
The Australian Government’s National Reserve System Program and the Maintaining Australia’s Biodiversity Hotspots
Programme are investment strategies to conserve biodiversity and protect ecosystems for future generations. The
National Reserve System Program is underpinned by a scientific framework designed to protect rare or threatened species and areas of high species diversity. It includes more
than 9,400 protected areas including Commonwealth,
state and territory reserves, Indigenous lands, protected
areas managed by non-profit organisations and private
land. The Maintaining Australia’s Biodiversity Hotspots
Programme targets biodiversity hotspots on private and
leasehold land, to identify and facilitate conservation
improvements in these areas.
Biodiversity is the common heritage of humankind. It is
now recognised that conservation strategies must include
the protection of biodiversity (ecosystem, species and
genetic diversity) across all types of public, private and
reserve lands. Bioregional planning – the term for policy
making for and protection of these areas – covers not only
vertebrates and flowering plants, but also invertebrates,
non-flowering plants, fungi and micro-organisms which
make up the majority of species diversity in any ecosystem.
Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and
Communities. Biodiversity Species Profile and Threats Database: EPBC
Act List of Threatened Flora. Australian Government. http://www.deh.
gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=flora
Biodiversity policies and programs
In protecting Australia’s biodiversity, The Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the
main legal instrument and the National Strategy for the
Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity has provided
the framework since 1996. Replacing this Strategy is Australia’s Biodiversity Conservation Strategy 2010 – 2020, currently a draft strategy in circulation for public comment.
In June 2009, a group of 94 scientists (ecologists, marine
biologists and conservation planners) expressed concern
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Useful sources
Australian Conservation Foundation website. Retrieved 16
November 2010 from http://www.acfonline.org.au
This website includes numerous resources about biodiversity which can be accessed by using the site’s search field.
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the
Arts. Conservation of Australia’s Biodiversity. Australian
Government. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from
http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/
This site contains up-to-date information on biodiversity
in Australia, including legislation, policies, publications
and key reports, as well as links to popular websites.
Mora, C., Tittensor, DP., Adl, S., Simpson, AGB. & Worm B.
(2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the
Ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8). Retrieved 4 January 2011.
http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.
1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1001127
PLoS Biology is an open-access, peer-reviewed journal
published by the Public Library of Science.
United Nations Environment Program. United Nations
Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved 16 November
2010 from http://www.cbd.int/
This site provides access to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Biosafety Protocol, as well as up-todate information about biodiversity in a global context.
Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Australia’s Rangelands: Fact Sheet.
Australian Government. Retrieved 4 January 2011 from
http://www.environment.gov.au/land/publications/
rangelands.html
This site contains facts on Australia’s rangelands as well as
links to national principles and guidelines for rangeland
management.
Wilderness Society (2003), Australia’s Biodiversity:
A Summary. Retrieved 16 November 2010 from
http://www.wilderness.org.au/articles/biodivsum/
The Wilderness Society is a national, community-based
environmental organisation.
Hood, L. (2010). ‘Biodiversity: Facts and figures.’ Science
and Development Network. Retrieved 16 November 2010
from http://www.scidev.net/en/features/biodiversityfacts-and-figures-1.html
This article summarises recent data on the world’s biodiversity, its value and efforts to conserve it.
Dr Nicola Henry and Jen Rae, PhD researcher
RMIT University.
Authors
Date of last revision January 2012.
Howden, M., Hughes, L., Dunlop, M., Zethoven, I., Hilbert,
D. & Chilcott, C. (2003). Climate Change Impacts On Biodiversity In Australia, Outcomes of a workshop sponsored by
the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, 1–2 October
2002. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved
16 November 2010 from http://www.environment.gov.au/
biodiversity/publications/greenhouse/
This publication examines research and policy responses to
the impact of climate change on biodiversity in Australia.
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